Class TT^ 



Book 

Copyright If. 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



GERMAN STUDENTS' 
MANUAL 



OF THE LITERATURE, LAND, AND 
PEOPLE OF GERMANY 



BY 

FRANKLIN J. HOLZWARTH, Ph. D. 

PROFESSOR OF THE GERMANIC LANGUAGES AND LITERATURES IN 
SYRACUSE UNIVERSITY 




NEW YORK •:• CINCINNATI •:• CHICAGO 

AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY 




Copyright, 1908 and 1910, by 
F. J. HOLZWARTH 

German Students' Manual 
W. P. I 



©Ci.A25 9 8 4:9 



PREFACE 



This work does not purport to be a History of 
German Literature, but aims to supply a want which 
the writer believes to exist among both teachers and 
students of German in our colleges, by providing 
them with a text-book which will, in a very concise 
manner, give a general view of German land, people, 
and literature, and show how German thought and 
character have grown and developed under the in- 
fluence of other nations. Great care has also been 
taken to locate the writers in their proper periods; to 
characterize each clearly, together with his most im- 
portant works, and to give the most prominence to 
the greatest. The author has therefore incorporated 
in this book the outlines, act by act — a feature which 
he believes can not be found in any other American 
text-book — of the immortal dramas of Lessing, 
Schiller, and Goethe. German literature is so ex- 
tensive, and the time that the average American 
student can devote to the subject so limited, that a 
book of this kind seems almost imperative to facili- 
tate the work of the more advanced courses. Students 
often display such ignorance of even the best known 
writers, and of the simplest facts concerning Ger- 



4 GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 

many, its states, government, language, and educa- 
tion, that the teacher is constantly handicapped by 
innumerable questions and explanations. It is there- 
fore intended to give the student, even in his 
freshman year, an opportunity to familiarize him- 
self with the representative writers of each period in 
the development of German literature, and to make 
him acquainted with the essentials underlying the 
study of a people which to-day is at the height of in- 
tellectual life and culture. The material may be 
supplemented by lectures, and collateral reading may 
be assigned by the teacher. A suitable map has also 
been added to enable the student to obtain a better 
idea of the location of places of literary interest, and 
of the relative size and position of the various Ger- 
man states. The writer wishes to acknowledge his 
indebtedness to all modern standard works on the 
subjects treated, and also to his colleagues in the 
department, Professors J. Lassen Boysen, Charles 
J. Kullmer, and William C. Lowe, for their encour- 
agement and valuable suggestions. 

F. J. HOLZWARTH. 



CONTENTS 



I. THE PRIMITIVE PERIOD . . .7 

Land and People. Ethnological Divisions. 
II. THE PERIOD OF THE MIGRATIONS . . 21 
Germanic Nations. Saga-cycles. Ulfilas. The 
Merovingian Dynasty. 

III. THE CARLO VINGIAN PERIOD . . . .32 

Charles the Great. Muspilli. Hildebrandslied. 
Heliand. Evangelienbuch. 

IV. THE PERIOD OF THE SAXON EMPERORS 35 

Spielleute. Roswitha. Waltharilied. Konig Rother. 
V. THE PERIOD OF THE HOHENSTAUFEN . 41 
The Popular Epics. The Epics of Chivalry. The 
Lyric Poetry of the Courts. Didactic Poetry. The 
Close of the Middle Ages. The Drama. 
VI. THE PERIOD OF THE RENAISSANCE AND 

THE REFORMATION 65 

Volksbucher. Martin Luther. Hans Sachs. Johann 
Fischart. 

VII. THE PERIOD OF THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR 71 
Language Societies. Silesian Schools. Hymn 
Writers. Simplicissimus. Robinsonaden. 
VIII. THE PERIOD OF FREDERICK THE GREAT 77 
Bremer Beitrdge. Klopstock: Messias. Wieland: 
Oberon. Lessing: Miss Sara Sampson, Minna von 
Barnhelm, Emilia Galotti, Nathan der Weise. 
IX. THE PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION . . 96 
" Sturm und Drang." Herder. Schiller: Die Rauber, 
Fiesco, Kabale und Liebe, Don Carlos, Wallenstein, 
Maria Stuart, Die Jungfrau von Orleans, Die Braut 
von Messina, Wilhelm Tell. Goethe: G'dtz von 



6 



CONTENTS 



PAGB 

Berlichingen, Iphigenie, Egmont, Tasso, Hermann 
und Dorothea, Faust. 
X. THE PERIOD OF TRANSITION . . . 762 
Transition to Romanticism: Jean Paul. Early- 
Romantic School: A. W. and F. Schlegel. Tieck. 
Novalis. Later School of Romanticism: Hoffmann. 
Brentano. Arnim. Fouque. Kleist. Chamisso. 
Eichendorff. Miiller. Historical Novelists: Alexis. 
Holderlin. Platen. Riickert. The Poets of the 
War of Liberation: Arndt. Korner. Schenken- 
dorff. The Swabian School: Uhland. Kerner. 
Schwab. Morike. Austrian Writers: Grillparzer. 
Lenau. Griin. Zedlitz. Young Germany: Grabbe. 
Borne. Gutzkow. Laube. Heine. 



The Music Drama: Wagner. Novelists: Freytag. 
Spielhagen. Auerbach. Keller. Scheffel. Meyer. 
Ebers. Storm. Baumbach. Heyse. Riehl. 
Women Writers. The Close of the Nineteenth Cen- 
tury: Nietzsche. The Realistic Movement: Suder- 
mann. Hauptmann. 



The German Empire. Government. Bundesrat 
and Reichstag. Army and Navy. The Imperial 
Family. Chancellors of the Empire. The German 
Language. Education. Idiomatic Expressions. 
Abbreviations. Money, Weights, and Measures. 



XL THE MODERN PERIOD 



184 



XII. APPENDIX 



201 



INDEX . 

MAP OF GERMANY 



239 



GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 



THE PRIMITIVE PERIOD 

Land and People 

The original home (Urheimat) of the Germanic 
races must probably be sought in Asia. When the 
Romans first became acquainted with the country 
then called Germany, it already contained a large 
population. While the earliest account of these races 
is very obscure, we must consider them a branch of 
the Aryan race, which name is now commonly used 
to designate that ethnological division of mankind, 
otherwise called Indo-Germanic or Indo-European. 

Our sources of information concerning prehistoric 
times are so meager, that it is difficult, if not im- 
possible, to tell to what plane of civilization the Aryan 
had attained. But we are assured that the Aryan, 
although of a nomadic race, had passed the stage of 
a mere hunter. He had horses, cattle, and sheep; 
he built rude houses, and made boats, wagons, and 
weapons. Time was reckoned by the moon, and the 
decimal system was used for counting. His food 
consisted of milk, butter, and flesh, and a fermented 

7 



8 GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 



drink made of honey, called mead. Wild grains were, 
no doubt, used ; for it is not probable that the Aryan 
had any regular agriculture. 

Long before the time of Tacitus these forefathers 
of the Germans must have parted from their Aryan 
kinsmen and started on their western conquest. 

We have no authentic account of the Germanic 
tribes previous to 113 b. c, when the Cimbri and 
Teutones began to attack the Romans, and the scanty 
information concerning them during this period 
must be gathered from Latin and Greek authors. 

They were called Germani, but this appellation 
does not seem to have been in use among the people 
themselves. Some writers connect the name with the 
old German word Ger (meaning spear, spearman), 
others with the Celtic Gairm (a loud cry), because 
they entered a battle with a shout. According to 
Tacitus a hard piercing note and a broken roar were 
their favorite cries, which they rendered more full 
by applying their mouths to their shields. And still 
other writers claim that the name was borrowed 
from the Celts and meant neighbors. They regarded 
themselves as children of the soil on which they 
dwelt, and had a tradition of their common descent 
from one father, Tuisco, who had a son, Mannus, 
the father of the German race. The Roman histo- 
rians tell us that they were a people of high stature, 
fair complexion, and ruddy hair, endowed with great 
physical strength, and distinguished by an indomi- 



THE PRIMITIVE PERIOD 



9 



table love of liberty. " Powerful in sudden exertions, 
but impatient of toil and labor, least of all capable 
of sustaining thirst and heat. Cold and hunger they 
are accustomed by their climate and soil to endure." 
They had a great regard for their hair, which was 
worn long and flowing — a sign of freedom. To be 
shorn was considered a great disgrace, and was made 
a punishment for certain crimes. 

The men delighted in the perils of war, thinking 
it ignoble to work for what they might gain with 
blood. The chiefs loved to surround themselves 
with select youths, who served as their companions 
in war, and even in time of peace added to the fame 
and glory of their chief by their bravery. In speak- 
ing of Germanic chiefs, Tacitus says it was disgrace- 
ful for the chief to be surpassed in valor on the field 
of battle — disgraceful, on the other hand, for the 
companions not to equal their chief; but infamous 
to retreat from the field surviving him. When a 
certain Allemanic king was taken prisoner by the 
Romans, his companions, who thought it dishonor- 
able to survive him, voluntarily surrendered them- 
selves to be put into bonds. The German had an 
ambition to distinguish himself by heroic deeds, and 
cowardice was unpardonable. If he left his shield 
behind him in battle, he was shut out from the re- 
ligious rites of the tribe, and was not permitted to 
take part in the tribal councils or to enter any sacred 
place. They had only one kind of public amusement, 



io GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 



the sword dance, in which young men danced naked 
amidst drawn swords and lances, with such grace 
and skill that they received not the slightest injury. 

The German warrior considered manual labor 
degrading, and in time of peace, when not following 
the chase, of which he was passionately fond, spent 
much time in indolence. It was, however, no dis- 
grace for him to spend days and nights without inter- 
mission in drinking. The historian pictures him 
lying whole days at a time before the fire, and, when 
sober, playing at dice as a serious business. This 
apparently was a national vice, and he gambled with 
such, recklessness that when everything else was gone 
he staked even his own liberty on the last throw, 
going voluntarily into servitude if he lost. 

Children, rich and poor alike, grew up in the house- 
hold, and no distinction was made between them un- 
til the state had tested the ability of the freeborn to 
bear arms. The youth was then honored in the pres- 
ence of the clan by the gift of spear and shield, and 
so became a warrior and a member of the state. 

The dignity of chieftain was often conferred upon 
a mere youth whose father had distinguished him- 
self in the public service. 

The women, whose chastity was above reproach, 
were held in high esteem. Tacitus claims that the 
Germans even supposed somewhat of sanctity and 
prescience to be inherent in the female sex, and that 
they revered the prophetess Veleda as a deity. Ac- 



THE PRIMITIVE PERIOD 



11 



cording to tradition, women had even rallied armies 
that were beginning to give way, and in desperate 
emergencies donned armor and themselves engaged 
in battle. No matter how much we may doubt some 
of the testimony of the ancients, this reverence for 
women stands out as a stubborn fact in Germanic 
character. It was the women who by their divina- 
tion foretold whether the outcome of a battle would 
be favorable. In describing the Cimbrian women, 
the historian says: "The women who follow the 
Cimbri to war are accompanied by gray-haired 
prophetesses, in white vestments, with canvas mantles 
fastened by clasps, brazen girdles, and naked feet. 
These go with drawn swords through the camp, and, 
striking down those of the prisoners they meet, drag 
them to a brazen kettle; the priestess cuts the throat 
of the victim, and, from the manner in which the 
blood flows into the vessel, judges the future event." 

The Germans were very superstitious, cast lots, 
watched the flight of birds, listened to the neighing 
of horses, and sought to divine the outcome of a 
battle by a duel, in which a prisoner was obliged to 
fight with a picked man of their own army. 

The country was almost entirely covered with 
marshes and forests; the sun was obscured the 
greater part of the year by heavy fogs, and the climate 
was cold and cheerless. It was "a land rude to every 
beholder and cultivator, except a native." Yet we 
are told the German loved his forests and held them 



12 GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 



sacred; for in their mysterious depths he worshiped 
the gods of his fathers. 

When the Germans first appeared in history they 
were mainly nomads, and little given to agriculture ; 
still, we may believe that the country contained some 
fertile fields, and that, to a certain extent, farming 
was carried on by the Germans of Tacitus, for the 
increasing population necessitated greater means of 
sustenance and a steadier supply of food than the 
forests and streams provided. They had sheep and 
cattle, and probably cultivated oats, barley, and flax; 
but the tilling of the soil was left to the women, old 
men, and slaves. There was land for everybody, 
and we find the German settling here or there as a 
spring or a meadow invited. 

Each head of a family had absolute power over 
those of his household, and corporal punishment, 
even of adult members, was very common; but an 
able-bodied person was seldom put to death, except 
in case of a heinous crime. Women had no legal 
rights; the wife was under the tutelage of the hus- 
band, the widow under that of a son, while the father- 
less daughter was under the guardianship of a 
brother. A person's own children, however, were 
his heirs and successors, and no wills were made. 
Brothers, paternal and maternal uncles were next in 
order of inheritance if there were no children. 

The German had an aversion for cities, despising 
as effeminate the refinements of civilized fife; and 



THE PRIMITIVE PERIOD 



13 



not until at least some of his warlike instincts were 
curbed did he build cities. The Germanic house 
was built of wood, and parts of it were painted with 
a pure and shining kind of earth. The roof was 
thatched and projected over the sides; windows and 
chimneys were unknown, — on the whole, the struc- 
ture can not have been very substantial, if we may 
judge from an old law which contains an ordinance 
against throwing down or tearing apart another 
man's house, — and in this foul, smoky atmosphere 
the women of the household wove and spun during 
the long winter months. 

But the Germanic Farmstead of a later period is 
described as consisting of a group of buildings: the 
house proper, the Ausdinghauschen, to which the old 
couple could retreat when the oldest son took charge 
of the estate, a storehouse and stable, a shed for 
wagons and tools, and, in every well regulated family, 
a place for the brewing of beer. All these buildings 
were surrounded by a stockade. Into such a home 
the free man brought his bride, whom he had pur- 
chased with weapons, cattle, or horses. From the 
time of the migration of nations money was also used, 
and we are told that a marriageable maiden was 
worth about two hundred and fifty dollars. Having 
paid the purchase price, the man placed a ring on the 
bride's left hand and shoes on her feet. Her hair, 
which had been worn loose and flowing, was now 
bound up and covered with a cap, — hence the saying 



14 GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 

Unter die Haube kommen — and a bunch of keys was 
fastened to her girdle, indicating that she was to be 
the keeper of her husband's household treasures. 
At the close of the ceremony, that religious signifi- 
cance might not be wholly lacking, a hammer, the 
symbol of the god Donar, was placed in the bride's 
lap, to signify that the wrath of the god would fall 
upon her if she proved untrue to her husband. The 
marriage laws were very strict, and the chastity of 
the Germans afforded a striking contrast to the li- 
centiousness of the Romans. "Almost alone among 
the barbarians," says Tacitus, "they content them- 
selves with one wife." The Hochzeit, from Hohe- 
zeit, was, as its name denotes, regarded as the highest 
point in life, and was celebrated as publicly as pos- 
sible, amid the shouts of the guests. It was made the 
occasion of a great celebration, which, among the 
more wealthy, continued a number of days. 

Although the wife had been purchased from her 
guardian, and, as already stated, had no rights at law, 
her position in the household was an honored one. 
The mother of a family ruled the entire household, 
and was treated with the greatest deference by the 
women, slaves, and children. She superintended the 
care of the house, the kitchen, the cellars, the table, 
and the beds, the making of clothes, and the brewing 
of beer and mead. She was also acquainted with 
surgery, and was skilled in the use of balsams for 
the wounds of the men; finally, she was the family 



THE PRIMITIVE PERIOD 



*5 



prophetess and on important occasions held com- 
munication with the gods by means of signs and the 
casting of lots. 

In regard to his clothing the German showed the 
greatest simplicity. Some writers would have us be- 
lieve that the Germanic wardrobe was very scanty; 
that the men, even in the coldest weather, wore only 
skins which left a large portion of their bodies ex- 
posed. Tacitus, however, mentions a mantle, sagum, 
fastened by a clasp, or even a thorn, and another 
garment, vestis, which was close -girt, and clung to the 
figure. The dress of the women resembled that of 
the men, except that they were more accustomed to 
wear linen, which they embroidered and adorned 
with bright colors. These garments left the arms, 
shoulders, and the upper part of the breast bare. In 
making use of the skins of animals, they often, for 
variety, spotted them with fur of another color. 
Simple as was their clothing, and rude as was their 
mode of life, we must not fancy that they gave no 
attention to their persons, for they loved ornaments 
/ and valued their bath. Not only was a warm bath 
considered a great luxury, but Caesar writes of both 
sexes bathing in the streams; even the daily bath is 
frequently mentioned. 

The Germans were very hospitable, imposing a 
penalty on the householder who refused to shelter a 
traveler. Tacitus says, " Banquets and hospitality 
find such favor in no other nation. To turn anybody, 



16 GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 



no matter who he may be, from one's door, is held 
a crime; he is entertained according to the means of 
the host, who provides his best. When that is gone, 
the host becomes guide and companion to his guest, 
and together they seek the hospitality of some other 
board, going uninvited into the first convenient house. 
Neighbor and stranger are made equally welcome. 
To the parting guest, so custom ordains, is given 
whatever he may desire ; and the host is equally free 
to ask something of him." These gifts often con- 
sisted of food and drink, animals, clothes, rings, and 
even land. 

On all great public occasions songs played an im- 
portant part, and poetry was greatly valued. These 
songs were transmitted from generation to genera- 
tion by word of mouth. The Germans loved to sing 
of war and the heroic deeds of their ancestors, whose 
example stimulated their courage. "To hear of 
battle and conquest was the German's delight," and 
the ancient songs were mostly of a martial nature, 
although in the Edda, a collection of northern myths, 
we find a variety of sentiments expressed. 

The Germans were not only brave and heroic, they 
were also very religious. "Every hearthstone was 
an altar, and the father of the family was its priest. 
Here lingered the ancestral spirits, and here the head 
of the family offered to them food and drink, asked 
their help, cast lots, and sang the incantation." The 
earliest accounts mention both priests and priestesses, 



THE PRIMITIVE PERIOD 



11 



and not only animal, but also human sacrifices. 
Their religious ideas were very simple; the sun, 
storm, sky, lightning, and all the forces of nature 
were regarded as divine. Their gods represented 
the powers of nature. 

Their mythology was the same originally as that 
preserved by the Scandinavians, in a little different 
form. They had religious festivals at certain times 
which they continued to celebrate even after their con- 
version to Christianity. As the highest god they wor- 
shiped Odin (Wodan), perhaps the Tius (Tuisto) of 
the Germans of Tacitus. He was the "All-Father," 
creator of the universe and the inferior gods. Two 
ravens, Hugin (thought) and Munin (memory), the 
symbol of his omniscience, sat upon his shoulders 
and whispered to him everything that was taking 
place on the earth. He is represented as having but 
one eye; he rode upon an eight-footed steed, Sleipnir, 
and carried the spear Gungnir. As god of war, his 
palace was Valhalla, where the souls of warriors who 
had fallen in battle reveled in the joys which had 
given them most pleasure while on earth. Daily they 
rode with the gods upon the Elysian fields of Valhalla 
and battled with one another until evening; then, 
seated in a circle, they feasted and drank mead from 
golden goblets. Wodan presided at the feast. Of 
less importance were Balder, the god of light; Loki, 
the god of evil; and Wodan's son, Thor, or Donar, 
the god of thunder, so called from the rolling of his 

Ger. Stu. Man. — 2 



18 GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 



chariot, which was drawn by black goats. He was 
imagined to be in the prime of life, the strongest of 
all the gods, and continually at strife with the giants, 
at whom he hurled his magic hammer, Mjolnir, which 
had the power of returning to his hand after being 
hurled. The sign of the hammer, was among the 
heathen Teutons analogous to that of the cross among 
the Christians. 

Among the goddesses perhaps the best known is 
Frigga, also called Frau Holle or Bertha, in which 
character she was the special patroness of the house- 
hold. She was also known as Hertha, or Mother 
Earth, who in a veiled chariot drawn by yoked white 
cows, and attended by a priest, visited the different 
nations. Wherever the sacred car of the goddess 
appeared it was greeted with great rejoicing and all 
hostilities were laid aside until the priest conducted 
the goddess back to the sacred grove whence she had 
started. 

The goddesses of fate, called Norns, were three 
sisters, representing the past, present, and future, 
and were not subject to the other gods. 

These were probably the most important deities 
of the ancient Germans, who worshiped also a host 
of inferior gods, and imagined the earth and air 
peopled with elves, nixes, kobolds, dwarfs, and 
giants. 

The Germans of this primitive period were di- 
vided into tribes, of which some had a regal, others 



THE PRIMITIVE PERIOD 



a republican form of government. Nations were di- 
vided into cantons, which were again divided into dis- 
tricts, or hundreds, — so called because they were com- 
posed of a hundred townships. Each hundred had 
a centenary, chosen from the people, before whom 
small offenses were tried ; and each canton was super- 
intended by a chief who administered justice in all 
causes, great and small. The courts of justice were 
held in the open air, usually beneath an oak tree. 
They convened on certain days, either at the new or 
the full moon. All sat down armed, for the Germans 
transacted no business unarmed — even judges were 
armed on the seat of justice. Silence was then pro- 
claimed by the priests, and the assembly was ad- 
dressed by the king or chief, and by others distin- 
guished for their bravery and wisdom. If a proposal 
displeased them it was rejected by an inarticulate 
murmur; if it met their approval, they applauded by 
clashing their javelins. 

Most of the Germanic tribes burned their dead; 
in fact, Tacitus believes this was the mode in which 
they invariably disposed of their corpses. The ashes 
and unconsumed bones were buried and a mound 
raised over the grave. Certain kinds of wood were 
reserved for burning the bodies of illustrious persons; 
and not only were weapons and horses burned with 
their owners, but also oftentimes the wife. She had 
vowed fidelity unto death, and, according to history, 
never took a second husband. It was esteemed a 



20 GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 



great virtue if she voluntarily sacrificed herself on 
her husband's funeral pile. In contrast to this 
manner of disposing of the dead, read Platen's Das 
Grab im Busento. In the Edda another mode of 
sepulture is mentioned; the corpse of the hero was 
put on board a boat, called a " Meerdrachen " and 
placed in a sitting posture against the mast, with 
all his best-loved possessions grouped about him. 
The sail was then hoisted, the ship set on fire and 
allowed to drift out to sea. 



THE PERIOD OF THE MIGRATIONS 



The Romans first heard of the Germans through 
the Celtic Gauls, about 330 b. c, but they did not 
come into personal contact with them until the year 
113 b. c, when the Teutons and the Cimbrians in- 
vaded Italy. They roamed and plundered at will 
for nearly ten years, until Marius with his army 
nearly exterminated them. From this time onward 
the races were in frequent collision; the Romans 
pushed their conquests into the heart of Germany 
so that at the beginning of the Christian Era a large 
portion of Germany was in their possession. 

Quintilius Varus, the commander of the Roman 
forces in Germany (6 A. d.), was a man of despotic 
and relentless character, and soon earned the fiercest 
hate of the people. He substituted the Roman sys- 
tem for the native forms of government, collected 
taxes by force, and punished trivial offenses with 
death. This violent oppression so aroused the in- 
dignation of the people that the subjugated tribes, 
almost without exception, determined to make an 
effort to throw off the Roman yoke. 

Experience had taught them that to accomplish 
this it was necessary to act unitedly, and they there- 



22 GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 



fore ranged themselves under the leadership of Her- 
mann (Arminius), a young chief of the Cherusci, who 
had distinguished himself in the Roman service, and 
thoroughly understood Roman warfare and cun- 
ning. Although but twenty-five years of age, he is 
described as an experienced commander, of attrac- 
tive presence, great strength, and ready mind. He 
prepared for the insurrection by organizing a secret 
conspiracy among the tribes, and, when all plans 
were complete, sent messengers to Varus saying that 
one of the tribes near the Rhine had risen in revolt. 
Varus marched to quell the insurrection. Mean- 
while Hermann hurriedly gathered his army and 
followed Varus, who had taken the nearest way 
through the Teutoburg forest, and there, in the midst 
of a fierce autumn storm, suddenly surrounded the 
legions of Varus with an army nearly equal in num- 
bers. For two days the Romans resisted the fury of 
the German confederates, but on the third day the 
attack was fiercer than ever, and the Romans were 
hopelessly beaten (9 A. d). Varus, who had been 
wounded, threw himself upon his sword, and but few 
escaped to tell of their defeat. The conquerors took 
the fiercest revenge on the Roman judges and officers 
who had so brutally overturned their customs, and 
many were sacrificed to the gods. This appalling de- 
feat threw Rome into consternation and terrified the 
aged Augustus, who clothed himself in mourning, 
let his hair and beard grow long, and wandered about 



THE PERIOD OF THE MIGRATIONS 23 



his palace often crying aloud, "Varus, Varus, give 
me back my legions!" 

Hermann had, no doubt, visions of an organized 
nation, but the people, jealous of his great influence 
and authority, cast aside their opportunity, and even 
his own family opposed his plans. Hermann had 
stolen his wife, the beautiful Thusnelda, from her 
father Segestes, who was friendly to the Romans. 
Thusnelda was brave and patriotic and encouraged 
her husband in his attempts to free his country. 
After the defeat of Varus, Germanicus took command 
of the Roman forces in Germany. Segestes appealed 
to him for help against his own countrymen, and 
even gave his daughter Thusnelda captive. This 
aroused the anger of Hermann, who collected an 
army and attacked the Romans, but without avail, 
and Thusnelda later adorned the triumphal pro- 
cession of Germanicus in Rome. Hermann was 
treacherously slain by his own relatives twelve years 
after his victory over Varus. The historian says: 
"He was without doubt the deliverer of Germany; 
and, unlike other kings and generals, he attacked 
the Roman people, not at the commencement, but in 
the fullness of their power; in battles he was not 
always successful, but he was invincible in war." 
Tradition has preserved the location of the battle- 
field, and grateful posterity has erected a colossal 
statue of Hermann, ninety feet high, on the summit 
of the Grotenburg, near DetmokL On both sides 



24 GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 



of his gigantic sword maybe seen the words: "Ger- 
many's unity, my strength; my strength, Germany's 
power." 

During the centuries following the death of Her- 
mann there was a comparative cessation of hostilities 
between the Romans and the Germans, but the latter 
seem to have been engaged in intertribal strife, of 
which we, however, have no record. When the 
Germans again appear in history, we find that great 
internal changes have taken place. The names of 
nearly all the old tribes have disappeared, and in 
their stead have arisen extensive associations of 
tribes, which we may call nations. Whether these 
had been formed by conquest, or by voluntary con- 
solidation, we can not definitely determine. Among 
the most important of these nations were : 

The Goths, who, according to their ancient 
traditions, trace their origin back to Scandinavia. 
Tacitus locates them at the delta of the Vistula, and 
at that time they were ruled by kings. About the 
middle of the third century we find them spreading 
over the large territory between the Baltic and the 
Black Seas. They were now distinguished as West 
Goths (Visigoths), who inhabited Dacia and the 
banks of the Danube, and East Goths (Ostrogoths), 
who settled along the shores of the Black Sea and 
upon the plains eastward to the Dnieper. They 
were very powerful, and made terrible inroads on the 
neighboring Roman provinces. 



THE PERIOD OF THE MIGRATIONS 25 



The Allemanni enter the scene of history about 
the beginning of the third century, when Caracalla 
came in contact with them on the Main. As the 
name indicates, they were a mixed race, composed 
of fragments of many different tribes. They were 
mostly of Suevian descent, and came from Eastern 
Germany. After the fifth century the nation was 
known as the Suevi. They finally settled on the 
Upper Rhine, in the territory which now embraces 
Baden, Wurttemberg, and Northeastern Switzerland. 
From Allemanni the French have given the name of 
Allemagne to the Germans and Germany in general. 

The Thuringii consisted of the remnants of the 
Hermunduri and other tribes, united under one 
king. They spread over Central Germany from the 
Danube to the Harz, and as far east as the Bohemian 
Forest. 

The Saxons took their name from the peculiar 
weapon they used (sahs, knife) and occupied nearly 
the whole plain of North Germany between the Harz 
and the North Sea, from the Elbe to the Rhine. 
They were noted for their piratical attacks, in com- 
pany with the Franks, on the coasts of Gaul and 
Britain. They retained the old system of districts and 
communities, and had no kings. 

The Franks were a mixture of Sigambri, Chatti, 
Bructeri, and Batavi, and appeared first on the Lower 
Rhine, but later gained possession of a large part of 
Belgium and Westphalia. They were recognized as 



26 GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 



a distinct nation before the close of the third century, 
and were governed by kings. After the middle of the 
fourth century they were divided into Salians and 
Ripuarians, and each division had its own laws. 

The B urgundi ans came from the banks of the 
Oder and the Vistula. They settled along the Neckar 
and the Rhine, and soon penetrated into Gaul. 
About the middle of the fifth century their king with 
ten thousand men was defeated by Attila, and we 
find the story of their overthrow preserved in the 
Nibelun genii led. 

The Frisians were a quiet people located in the 
extreme northwest of Germany on the shore of the 
North Sea and the islands in that vicinity. There is 
a Frisian literature as early as the twelfth century. 

In the year 375, the Huns, a nomadic people up 
to this time unknown to the Germans, poured in im- 
mense hordes from the steppes of Asia into Europe, 
and gave the first impulse to the movement known as 
the migration of nations. The Huns were of Asiatic 
origin, probably of the Tartar family, and were al- 
most black, deformed in appearance, and very awk- 
ward on their feet. They had broad shoulders, flat 
noses, small, mean eyes, and long black hair. They 
were expert horsemen and spent most of their time 
on horseback. Their appearance was so repulsive 
that the terrified Goths believed them to be the off- 
spring of witches and infernal spirits. 

These migrations, which covered a period of more 



THE PERIOD OF THE MIGRATIONS 27 



than two centuries, began with the Goths, who were 
the most advanced of all the Germanic nations. The 
Goths were unable to resist the inroads of the Huns, 
and great numbers of the West Goths, who had em- 
braced Christianity, threw themselves on the mercy 
of the emperor Valens, crossed the Danube, and were 
perhaps the first of the Germanic nations to estab- 
lish themselves within the Roman Empire. From 
this time onward these people play an important 
part in history, for early in the fifth century Rome it- 
self was seized by their bold king Alaric. The Goths 
pushed their conquests westward, but before they 
had reached the Atlantic all Central Europe was in 
commotion. 

The Huns, who had steadily pressed forward, were 
as yet unconquered when Attila (Etzel) became their 
king (434 a. D.). He was the mightiest warrior of his 
time, and was noted far and wide for his intelligence, 
and many German tribes, who deemed it no disgrace 
to serve the most valiant, flocked to his standard. 
He was the only great leader of these wandering 
nations whose sole aim was to destroy, thus earning 
the title "the Scourge of God." About the year 451, 
Attila prepared for a great war of conquest, and 
marched with an immense army into the heart of 
Gaul, but was defeated in one of the most frightful 
battles known to history. It is said that a stream 
which crossed the battlefield was swollen with blood. 
In the following year Attila invaded Italy with an- 



28 GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 



other army, destroying everything in his way. He 
was met at the river Po by Pope Leo, who prevailed 
upon him to withdraw with his army into Hungary, 
where he died shortly afterward. With the death of 
Attila the power of the Huns was broken and they 
disappeared as mysteriously as they had come. 

Before the close of the migratory period, the Ro- 
man Empire itself falls by German hands; the Os- 
trogoths, who, under their great ruler Theodoric 
(475 A. D.), had again become a powerful race, dis- 
appear from history as a nation; the Visigoths are 
driven beyond the Alps; the Burgundian kingdom 
is overthrown; the Anglo-Saxons have taken pos- 
session of Britain, and the Langobards conquer 
Italy. 

The four centuries following the invasion of the 
Huns, during which time the Germanic tribes were 
constantly wandering about, are very significant. 
They mark the age of Germanic heroes and the be- 
ginning of the conversion of our ancestors to Chris- 
tianity. The heroes of the migratory period became 
the subjects of numerous sagas which dwelt for cen- 
turies in the minds of the people and may be divided 
into two principal saga-cycles: the Ostrogothic- 
Hunnic and the Burgundian. Dietrich von Bern 
(Theoderic the Great, king of the Ostrogoths), 
Hildebrand, his vassal, and Etzel, the cruel king of 
the Huns, are the principal characters of the first- 
named cycle, and the Burgundian king Gunther and 



THE PERIOD OF THE MIGRATIONS 29 



his brothers, of the second. The two most important 
literary fragments of this time are the Gothic transla- 
tion of the Bible by Ulfilas and the old Low German 
song of Hildebrand. 

Ulfilas, the Arian bishop of the Visigoths, was 
born about 310 A. d., and was consecrated bishop of 
the Goths in the year 341 at Antioch. For seven years 
he labored among the Goths in Dacia and then on 
account of persecution and oppression led his con- 
verts into Moesia, where he preached until his death 
in 383 while on a visit to Constantinople. He was the 
chief light of the Arian church and had the largest 
share in the social and religious development of the 
Goths, being able to preach in Latin, Greek, and 
Gothic. 

His greatest work was the translation of the Bible 
into Gothic from the Greek, omitting the Books of 
the Kings, which he feared would arouse the already 
too warlike spirit of his people. These fragments of 
the Bible, which are the oldest specimen of Teutonic 
speech, are called the Codex Argenteus (Silver Manu- 
script), which is carefully guarded in Upsala, Sweden. 
It is written in silver letters on purple parchment and 
is a most valuable work for the study of comparative 
grammar of the Germanic languages. The alphabet 
used by Ulfilas was a mixture of the runes and the 
Greek alphabet, for the Goths up to this time had 
no written language. Up to the ninth century this 
book accompanied the Goths on all their migra- 



30 GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 



tions. They were the first of all the Germanic 
tribes to accept Christianity (about 300 A. d.); the 
Franks followed in the fifth century, the Burgundians 
and Allemanni between the sixth and seventh, the 
Thuringians, Frisians, and Saxons between the ninth 
and tenth centuries, and the Scandinavians still 
later. 

Under the Merovingian dynasty (about 480-750) 
Roman civilization influenced the Franks, who, al- 
though they had now become the supreme power, 
had retained their Germanic character. By means 
of the La an language, which prevailed in church and 
state, the Franks were brought into touch with other 
peoples and thus assured the spread of Christianity. 
St. Patrick and the Irish monasteries in the north, 
Columbanus among the Allemanni in the south, 
Gallus, the founder of the monastery of St. Gall in 
Switzerland, and St. Boniface, the Apostle of Ger- 
many, who founded the monastery of Fulda, did 
much to arouse an interest in the conversion of the 
nations. A -though this period did not produce a 
single Lterary document in the German language, it 
nevertheless continued the sagas in the popular heroic 
song, which now had reached its highest state of 
perfection. As early as the beginning of the sixth 
century the songs of Siegfried and Attila had spread 
as far as Scandinavia. About this time the separa- 
tion of the High and Low German dialects took 
place, separating the north from the south, and it is 



THE PERIOD OF THE MIGRATIONS 31 



believed that two distinct nations would have resulted 
had not the Saxons been subjugated by Charlemagne. 
This Old High German language continued its de- 
velopment till about 1 100 and is distinguished by 
rich, full vowels in its inflectional endings. 



THE CARLOVINGIAN PERIOD 



Charles the Great (742-814) was the first to 
check pagan writings, and his coronation in 768 vir- 
tually meant the restoration of Rome to her old su- 
premacy. He succeeded in forming a political and 
religious union of all the German tribes. His church 
policy was of the highest order and his decrees called 
forth the first German prose writings, which were 
mostly of a religious nature, — a confession of faith, 
baptismal vows, and a translation of creeds. He did 
much to cultivate the German language, and caused a 
collection of old German poetry to be made, which 
unfortunately was afterwards destroyed. Besides 
two prayers, of which the Wessobrunner Gebet is espe- 
cially worthy of mention, and several religious songs, 
there are three longer poems which belong to this 
period : Muspilli, Heliand, and Otjrieds Evangelien- 
buch, which show us to what extent Christian poetry 
and theological culture had developed at this time. 

Muspilli (World Destruction) is one of the most 
interesting fragments of Old High German litera- 
ture, and gives us an idea of the popular religious 
conception of the Germans of the ninth century. In 
it we find pagan and Christian elements blended; 
angels and spirits of darkness contend for the soul 
of the dead at the Last Judgment, and the pains of 



THE CARLOVINGIAN PERIOD 



hell and the joys of heaven are described with Ger- 
manic imagination. 

The Hildebrandslied is a popular heroic song, 
which was copied in a prayer book by two monks of 
the monastery of Fulda about 800 A. d., although it 
may have been written several centuries earlier. It 
is preserved to-day in the city of Cassel. 

Hildebrand, the most faithful of Theodoric's vassals, returns 
to his home in Italy after an absence of thirty years. Hadubrand, 
his son, challenges him to fight. When Hildebrand asks who his 
opponent is, he receives the answer, "Hadubrand, son of Hilde- 
brand." When he learns on a second inquiry that it is really his 
son who opposes him, he tries to avoid a combat by offering him 
presents. But Hadubrand does not trust him, since he has been 
informed by sailors that his father had been killed in battle. After 
being taunted with cowardice, Hildebrand laments his fate, for he 
must either be slain by his own son or become his son's murderer. 
They rush at each other with their spears, which glance off from 
their shields; then drawing their swords they cut each other's 
shield in pieces. 

Here the poem breaks off. We may conclude from 
the contrast of the two characters and the impending 
catastrophe that the father destroys his own race in 
his son. Later reproductions of this song end with 
a reconciliation of father and son. (Compare the 
story of Sohrab and Rustum.) 

The Heliand or Heiland (Savior), of unknown 
authorship, was written about the year 830, and 
pictures the Savior as a king according to the gospels, 
and likens his kingdom unto a German kingdom. 
Christ is introduced as a king, who, with a company 
Ger. Stu. Man. — 3 



34 GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 



of faithful followers, wishes to conquer a country 
which the enemy had taken from him. The Jewish 
cities are called burgen, e. g., Rumuburg (Rome), 
Bethlehemburg, Jerichoburg, — the buildings of Jeru- 
salem Hornsale. Since the Germans considered it a 
disgrace to ride on an ass, the poet does not mention 
this fact when he describes Christ's entry into Jeru- 
salem. The Sermon on the Mount is well given. 
Christ is also made to die on the gallows, because 
crucifixion was incomprehensible to the Germans. 
The poem closes with Christ's ascension to heaven. 
This old Messianic poem, which contains about 6000 
alliterative lines, was intended to make the Bible 
known among the Saxons. 

Otfried's Evangelienbuch or Krist appeared about 
868 and was written in the Franconian dialect by a 
monk of the Alsatian monastery of Weissenburg, who 
intended that the book should serve not only as a 
reader, but also as a hymnal. While the Heliand 
represents a transition period in the development of 
Christianity, the Evangelienbuch is wholly Christian 
and bears no trace of paganism. Otfried's work also 
depicts a German king, and was written to arouse 
interest in stories from the Bible. Here, for the first 
time, we find rhyme instead of alliteration. 

The Ludwigslied (881) is the last important literary 
production of this period. It celebrates the victory of 
young Ludwig III. over the Normans at Sarcourt and 
represents the king as the champion of heaven. 



THE PERIOD OF THE SAXON EMPERORS 



The increasing influence of Rome in the time of 
the Saxon emperors (919-1024) was manifested by 
the introduction of southern culture and by a change 
of the colloquial language, which at the court of 
Charlemagne had been German but now became 
Latin. Therefore all the literature of the period is 
written in Latin. National literature was not at all 
cultivated by the Saxon emperors, who had no other 
desire than to save the empire and to inspire the 
Germans with a sense of unity and national great- 
ness. 

The most noticeable feature of this period is the 
growing importance of the Spielleute, or gleemen. 
At an earlier period they were the representatives of 
poetry, but lost their prestige when literature was in 
the hands of the clergy. Under the Saxon emperors 
they became the true preservers of national poetry. 
They were wandering minstrels, jesters, and gossips, 
to whom the people looked for their entertainment. 
They went from place to place carrying the latest 
news with them. Some of these gleemen were in- 
different and disobedient clergy who used their edu- 
cation to win the good will of nobles, princes, and 
bishops, whose praises they sang. They were, there- 

35 



36 GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 



fore, welcome in good society, and endeavored to 
outwit one another. 

For about a century and a half literature was at a 
standstill. With the passing of Charlemagne the 
empire declined and learning decayed. Scholarly 
activity was confined to the monasteries; monkish 
rule was uppermost and the masses of the people 
were ignorant of the arts of reading and writing. The 
monasteries of St. Gall, Reichenau, Fulda, and Gan- 
dersheim remained the principal seats of learning. 
St. Gall, where monks like Ekkehard and Notker 
busied themselves in writing Latin hymns and trans- 
lating psalms, was foremost in the line of scholar- 
ship, music, and literature under the Saxon em- 
perors. The Renaissance literature was also culti- 
vated in the nunneries by such women as the Saxon 
nun Roswitha von Gandersheim. To Roswitha 
we must give the honor of being the first German 
poetess. 

The most important productions of this epoch are 
Waltharius, by the monk Ekkehard, about 930, and 
the works of Roswitha, which consist of a life of Otto 
the Great, some legends, and six comedies in Latin. 
Most of her works are of a religious character and 
represent the life of Christians of the fifth and sixth 
centuries. 

The Waltharilied 

Three children live as hostages at the court of Etzel, the king 
of the Huns; Walther, the son of the king of the Visigoths, Hilde- 



THE PERIOD OF THE SAXON EMPERORS 37 



gunde, the daughter of the Burgundian king, and Hagen, the 
cousin of the king of the Franks. Walther and Hagen surpass all 
the Huns in skill and courage, and Hildegunde wins the favor of 
the queen and becomes the keeper of her treasures. When, on 
learning of the death of the old king of the Franks, Hagen makes 
his escape, a desire to return home is also awakened in Walther and 
Hildegunde; he reminds her of the fact that they were once in- 
tended for each other, and together they plan a way of escape. 
She secures the king's coat of mail and some of his treasures, while 
Walther arranges a feast; then, when the king and his men are 
drunk, he steals the fleetest horse out of the stable and carries 
Hildegunde away. 

In forty days the fugitives come to the Rhine opposite Worms. 
Walther gives the ferryman two fish from the Danube for carrying 
them across. When the boatman tells King Gunther how he 
obtained these fish, which are served on the royal table, Hagen sur- 
mises who the fugitives are. The king believes this to be a good 
opportunity to recover the treasure which his father had paid the 
Huns, and sets out with twelve of his best heroes, among whom is 
Hagen, to overtake them. Meanwhile Walther has taken refuge 
in a ravine, which is protected by rocks and bushes. He has been 
on the watch while Hildegunde sleeps, but now as she watches 
while he takes a much needed rest, she is startled by the approach 
of armed knights, whom Walther recognizes as Franks. 

Hagen had advised Gunther to seek, at first, an amicable ad- 
justment of their difficulty, but the king is not satisfied with the 
hundred gold buckles which Walther offers him. When Walther 
consents to give him two hundred, he demands the treasures to- 
gether with the maiden. The king's messenger is then slain. 
Seven other heroes also sacrifice their lives. Then, by means of a 
three-pronged spear, to which a rope is fastened, three others try 
to draw their enemy out of the ravine, but they, too, are killed. 

Hagen is now to avenge the slain. He delays long on account of 
his friendship for his youthful companions, but fidelity to his king 
demands it. The next day Walther and Hildegunde start on their 
journey through the forest. When night overtakes them, Walther 
bars the entrance to the cave in which they have taken refuge, 
takes off his armor, and refreshes himself with food and drink. 



38 GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 



Then, as he sleeps, Hildegunde sings to keep awake and watch. 
Toward morning Walther arises, to let his companion sleep, and 
prepares for the journey. 

They have gone but a little way when Hildegunde notices Gun- 
ther and Hagen behind them. Although Walther reminds Hagen 
of their former friendship, he is compelled to contend with both of 
them. The struggle lasts long and waxes hot, until Walther at last 
cuts off Gunther's right leg. As Walther makes another attempt at 
Hagen, his sword breaks, and Hagen cuts off his right hand. But 
when Walther seizes his short sword with his left hand and de- 
prives Hagen of an eye and six teeth, they are all ready to stop. 
Hildegunde binds up their wounds and returns home with Walther, 
who marries her and rules for thirty years over the Goths. 

During the brief period of the Salians (1024-1125), 
the church reached the zenith of her power. After 
she had succeeded in the struggle against Henry IV., 
she attracted the attention of the world to the con- 
quest of the Holy Land and thus absorbed all the 
strength of the nation. In literature the clergy con- 
tinued to be the leading representatives, although the 
gleemen sang of the events of the day and recast older 
sagas. The clerical writers took their material prin- 
cipally from the Bible and from legends, but when 
it became necessary to interest the knights in the 
crusades, they chose secular subjects. 

Ruodlieb, the oldest novel in German literature, 
written by a monk of the monastery of Tegernsee, 
represents the beginnings of chivalry. The gleemen, 
like the clergy, made use of all the literary material 
at hand, and thus originated the first German Beast 
Epic, Reinhart, from the French, by an Alsatian 



THE PERIOD OF THE SAXON EMPERORS 39 



writer, Heinrich der Glichesare. The two most 
important minstrel songs of this time are Herzog 
Ernst and Konig Rother. The former describes the 
wonderful adventures of the Duke of Schwaben on a 
crusade to the Holy Land. Konig Rother is divided 
into two parts. 

Konig Rother 

1. Rother's Search for a Bride. King Rother, who lives 
in Lower Italy, sends twelve heroes to sue for the hand of the 
daughter of the emperor Constantine in Constantinople. After 
waiting in vain a whole year for the return of his messengers, he 
himself concludes to go to Greece with a powerful army to free his 
comrades and, if necessary, to abduct the princess by force. Ar- 
riving in Constantinople, he disguises himself as Prince Dietrich, 
who has been banished from his country by King Rother, and 
offers the emperor his services. The young daughter of Con- 
stantine, who has vainly tried to see the hero, requests him to visit 
her. He sends her two shoes, one of gold and the other of silver; 
but since both are for the left foot he accepts the invitation, fits the 
proper shoes to her feet, at the same time confessing to the maiden 
that he is King Rother. On the following day he makes himself 
known to his imprisoned companions by a song. Shortly after- 
ward he defeats the enemies of the emperor, and is to bring the 
news to the empress; he tells her, however, that Constantine has 
been defeated, and, when the terrified women hasten to the sea- 
shore to escape across the sea, he carries the princess away. 

2. Rother's Expedition. When Constantine learns of this 
abduction he sends a gleeman to bring back his daughter. He 
lands in Bari during Rother's absence, lures the young queen 
upon his ship and escapes with her to Constantinople, where she 
is to be betrothed to the son of the king of Babylon. King Rother, 
who has hastened after them with an army of thirty thousand men, 
conceals his army in a forest near Constantinople, and enters the 
city disguised as a pilgrim. The wedding feast is being celebrated, 



40 GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 



and Rother succeeds in placing his ring in his wife's goblet. He 
soon after makes himself publicly known as King Rother, is fet- 
tered and condemned to death. He is granted the privilege of 
being hanged in the forest, whither all follow him; but, when once 
in the forest, Rother blows his horn, which he has concealed under 
his mantle; his followers hasten to the rescue, the Babylonians are 
slaughtered, and the son of the Babylonian king is hanged in place 
of Rother. After a reconciliation with the emperor, Rother and 
his wife return to Bari. 



THE PERIOD OF THE HOHENSTAUFEN 



It remained for the eleventh century to produce 
a national culture, to revive the German heroic song 
and to introduce a new epoch in the history of Ger- 
man literature. About the year noo changes de- 
veloped in the language which divide the Middle 
High German from the Old High German, so that 
we can safely say that from the close of the eleventh 
century the Middle High German is the literary 
language of the German people. Knighthood, too, 
was unfolding in all its splendor and began to assert 
itself. Chivalry not only meant military service, but 
stood also for all that was noble and refined, and 
was the type of true manhood. It was at this time 
that French influence was manifest in all depart- 
ments of life, and strong and free cities were spring- 
ing into power. The religious spirit was conse- 
crated to the deliverance of the Holy Sepulcher and 
a struggle for secular power ensued between the 
clergy and the laity. "The influence of the Crusades 
on the social and intellectual life of Europe can 
hardly be overestimated." They brought knight- 
hood to perfection and reconciled the national spirit 
with Christianity. Through them the wonders of 
the Orient were opened to Europe and a new ele- 
ment was introduced into popular poetry. 



42 GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 



The Alexanderlied and the Rolandslied are repre- 
sentative productions of the new poetry of knight- 
hood, and are taken from French sources. The 
former relates in a fairy like manner the deeds of 
Alexander the Great in Asia, and the latter represents 
the Spanish campaign of Charlemagne as a crusade 
against the heathen. German poetry during the 
reign of the Hohenstaufen (i 138-1254) was "more 
splendid," Carlyle says, "than the Troubadour 
period of any other nation." We may divide the 
literature of this period into four classes: 1. The 
Popular Epics. 2. The Epics of Chivalry. 3. The 
Lyric Poetry of the Courts. 4. Didactic Poetry. 

1. The Popular Epics 

The most popular epic is the Nibelungenlied. Its 
origin must be sought in the old Germanic sagas 
and the Edda. It came to us in its present form 
(about the year 1200) considerably changed and 
revised, but still retains its mythical and historical 
character. The author is unknown. The Nibelun- 
genlied is composed of thirty-nine cantos and is 
divided into two parts : Siegfried's death and Kriem- 
hild's revenge. 

The Nibelungenlied 

1. Siegfried's Death King Gunther Jives with his brothers 
Gemot and Giselher, his mother Ute, and his sister Kriemhild, at 
Worms on the Rhine The most prominent among his vassals are 
Hagen of Tronje> Hagen's brother Dankwart, and his friend 



THE PERIOD OF THE HOHENSTA UEE?7 43 



Volker, the gleeman. Kriemhild dreams that a falcon which she 
has reared is torn to pieces before her eyes by two eagles. Her 
mother, who interprets the dream, tells her the falcon is her future 
husband, whom she is destined to lose. At Xanten on the Rhine 
in the Netherlands lives Siegfried, the son of Siegmund and Sieg- 
linde, who is the picture of manly beauty and strength. When he 
hears of the fame and power of the Burgundian kings and of the 
virtues of Kriemhild, he sets out to win her. After a journey of six 
days, accompanied by only twelve heroes, he arrives at Worms and 
challenges the princes to a contest; but Hagen, who alone surmises 
that he is Siegfried, who slew the dragon and bathed in his blood, 
advises them to receive him kindly, and Siegfried remains as a 
guest at Gunther's court. 

After some time news reaches Worms that the kings Liideger of 
Saxony and Liidegast of Denmark have invaded Burgundy. This 
affords Siegfried an opportunity to win the favor of King Gunther, 
for he captures Liidegast, and compels Liideger to follow him as a 
hostage to Worms. At the celebration which follows this victory, 
Siegfried first meets Kriemhild, who thanks him for the service he 
has done her brother, to which he graciously replies that it was 
done for her sake. 

At Isenstein, far over the sea, lives the powerful queen Brun- 
hild. He who would win her must surpass her in three contests — 
spear-throwing, stone-hurling, and leaping; whoever is defeated 
forfeits his life. It is Gunther's ambition to win Brunhild, but he 
does not dare to undertake it without Siegfried's help. Siegfried 
promises his assistance on condition that Gunther will give him 
his sister Kriemhild, to which Gunther gladly consents, and the 
heroes depart. Siegfried alone knows Brunhild's country, and the 
queen knows Siegfried. She inquires into his mission and learns 
that Gunther has come to woo her, and that Siegfried is his vassal. 
While preparations for the contest are being made, Siegfried veils 
himself in the "Tarnkappe," which he had wrested from the 
dwarf Alberich, and which has the power of making the wearer 
invisible, takes his place at Gunther's side, and assists him in de- 
feating Brunhild in all three tests. 

Soon thereafter a double wedding takes place in Worms; but 
when Brunhild sees Siegfried at the side of Kriemhild, envy and 



44 GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 



jealousy fill her heart, and she is very unhappy. That night she 
struggles with her husband, binds his hands and feet and hangs 
him up on the wall. Gunther again calls Siegfried to his assist- 
ance; he subdues the angry queen and takes from her as trophies 
a ring and a girdle, which he gives to Kriemhild. He then returns 
with his wife to the Netherlands, where he rules for ten years. 

During this time Brunhild has often expressed a desire to see 
Kriemhild and Siegfried, and therefore sends messengers to invite 
them to come to Worms, where a great feast and tournaments are 
arranged in their honor. During one of the contests Kriemhild 
boasts of her husband's prowess, which awakens anew the long 
cherished jealousy, and Brunhild reproves her, saying that Sieg- 
fried is Gunther's vassal. Kriemhild tries to assuage her anger, 
but in vain. One day when they go to the cathedral the trouble 
breaks out afresh. Kriemhild claims the honor of entering first, 
but Brunhild says: "Stand back, the vassal's wife shall never 
precede the queen! " Greatly excited, Kriemhild shows Brunhild 
the ring and the girdle which Siegfried had taken from her; this so 
offends Brunhild that she resolves to seek revenge. 

Hagen is chosen to murder Siegfried. To carry out the plan, a 
new invasion of the Saxons is feigned to lure Siegfried away from 
the court. Hagen induces Kriemhild to indicate the one vulnerable 
spot on Siegfried's body by sewing a little cross on his coat so that 
he may know where to protect him in battle. Meanwhile the 
enemy has apparently withdrawn, and a hunting party is organ- 
ized. Siegfried succeeds in capturing a bear, and a great feast is 
prepared in the forest. Heated by the chase and having neglected 
to bring wine with them, they race to a spring; Siegfried reaches 
it first, but courteously waits for Gunther to drink. As Siegfried 
stoops to drink, Hagen thrusts his spear through the spot marked 
by the cross, and the hero dies, commending his wife to her 
brother's care. All regret the deed except Hagen, who increases 
Kriemhild's sorrow by placing the body of her husband before 
her door the next morning. 

Siegfried's vassals are restrained from taking revenge on the 
murderer through the intercession of Kriemhild, although she is 
convinced that Hagen is guilty, for when he approaches the bier, 
Siegfried's wounds bleed afresh. Kriemhild is inconsolable, and 



THE PERIOD OF THE HOHENSTA UFEN 45 



only after three years becomes reconciled to her brother Gunther, 
who induces her to bring the great Nibelung treasure, her dowry, 
to Worms, where Hagen gets possession of it and sinks it in the 
Rhine. 

2. Kjrieuhild's Revenge. Kriemhild has mourned the death 
of her husband thirteen years, when Etzel, the king of the Huns, 
sends the margrave Rudiger of Bechlarn to woo her for him. After 
Riidiger has promised to avenge any wrong done to her she con- 
sents to marry Etzel. Escorted by the margrave she journeys 
to the land of the Huns, is met by Etzel at Tulln on the Danube, 
celebrates her wedding in Vienna, and then takes up her residence 
in Etzelburg (Budapest). Years pass and a son is born, who is 
named Ortlieb, but Kriemhild can not forget Siegfried. She re- 
quests Etzel to invite the Burgundians to visit them and the in- 
vitation is accepted, notwithstanding the opposition of Hagen and 
of Queen Ute, who is warned by evil dreams. Led by Hagen, the 
Burgundians experience difficulty in crossing the Rhine, and are 
warned by a mermaid to return, for none, says she, except the 
chaplain of the king, will ever see his home-land again. Hagen 
then pitches the chaplain overboard, but he swims back to the 
shore, fulfilling the prophecy of the mermaid. When all the 
Burgundians are safely landed, Hagen destroys the boat, so that 
none can return. They are repeatedly warned on their journey 
that the day of revenge is near, but Rudiger, who has received 
them hospitably at Bechlarn, dissipates all fear and anxiety by the 
betrothal of his daughter to Giselher, Gunther's brother. Dietrich 
von Bern, one of Etzel's vassals, who has come to meet them, again 
warns them, saying that Kriemhild still mourns for Siegfried, but, 
disregarding all advice and warning, they reach Etzel's court. 

Etzel, who is not aware of Kriemhild's evil intentions, has made 
very hospitable preparations for the entertainment of the Nibel- 
ungs, but Kriemhild receives them coldly; only for Giselher, her 
youngest brother, has she a kiss. When she asks Hagen why he 
has not brought her treasure with him, he makes an insolent reply, 
and even defiantly admits that he is the murderer of Siegfried. 
He places Siegfried's sword across his knee and challenges any one, 
"Weib oder Mann," to avenge the murder. Night comes on and 
the Nibelungs retire, but Hagen and the minstrel Volker keep 



46 GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 



watch all night at the door of the hall, and when the stealthily ap- 
proaching Huns see their helmets shining through the night, they 
are frightened away. The next day the guests go armed to mass 
and afterward attend a tournament. 

Meanwhile Kriemhild has ineffectually sought the services of 
Dietrich von Bern. She now appeals to Etzel's brother Blodelin, 
who falls upon the Burgundian vassals, and a great slaughter en- 
sues, from which only Dankwart escapes to carry the news to his 
brother, Hagen at once begins the work of revenge by striking 
off the head of little Ortlieb, so that it rolls into Kriemhild's lap. 
Without avail Gunther, Gemot, and Giselher try to stop the 
terrible struggle. Kriemhild and Etzel escape, and Riidiger, who 
has been kind to the Burgundians, is permitted to withdraw with 
his five hundred men. The contest rages until evening, when the 
weary Burgundians seek peace; this they can secure only by sur- 
rendering Hagen, which they refuse to do, and the raging queen 
gives orders to set the great hall on fire. Throughout the night 
the heroes protect themselves from the falling timbers with their 
shields, and quench their thirst with the blood of the slain. In the 
morning they again bid defiance to their enemies. Riidiger's heart 
is torn by conflicting emotions, and he sorrowfully watches the 
struggle, still hoping that he may remain neutral; but when Kriem- 
hild reminds him of his promise to serve her, his duty as vassal 
leads him, very reluctantly, to break faith with the Burgundians, 
whom he and his men now attack. Riidiger seems invincible until 
he comes upon Gemot, who deals him a fatal wound, and all his 
vassals are also slain. When Hildebrand demands the body of the 
margrave, he is laughed to scorn, but finally rushes into the contest 
with fury, kills Volker, and is himself wounded by Hagen. Dank- 
wart and Giselher are also killed. Dietrich now offers the two re- 
maining Burgundians, Gunther and Hagen, a safe return home if 
they will surrender; but in vain. The conclusion is a dreadful tale 
of carnage. Dietrich wounds Gunther and Hagen, and leads them 
bound to Kriemhild, who has them put in prison. Again she tries 
to induce Hagen to restore to her the Nibelung treasure, but he 
declares that he will never reveal the secret as long as one of his 
lords survives. The revengeful queen then has her brother be- 
headed, and when Hagen still refuses she cuts off his head with 



THE PERIOD OF THE HOHENSTAUFEN 47 



Siegfried's own sword. Fearfully angered at such a sight, old 
Hildebrand rushes at Kriemhild and puts her to death also. 

GUDRUN 

The Gudrunsaga, like the Nibelungensaga, has 
a mythological and historical background. The 
struggles concerning Gudrun point back to the eighth 
and the three succeeding centuries, when the Nor- 
mans made marauding expeditions to the maritime 
countries of Europe. In the twelfth century the 
old sagas of Hilde and Gudrun were transferred 
from the North Sea to South Germany, where they 
were revised by an unknown poet. In the thirteenth 
century the story of Ha gen was added, and in this 
enlarged form the Gudrunlied has come down to the 
present time. 

Hagen, the son of King Sigebant of Ireland, is carried away 
by a griffin to a lonely island, where he grows up in the company 
of three royal maidens who have likewise been brought here by 
a griffin, and from whom he learns to satisfy his hunger with herbs 
and roots. With weapons which he has taken from an armed 
sailor whose body has been washed ashore from a stranded vessel, 
Hagen kills the griffin and later hails a passing ship, which takes 
him and the maidens home. Hagen's parents recognize their son 
by a golden cross which he wears on his breast, and when he has 
grown to manhood he assumes control of a kingdom and marries 
Hilde, the most beautiful of the maidens. Their daughter, like- 
wise called Hilde, is so beautiful that she is wooed by all the princes 
of the neighboring countries; but her father considers none good 
enough for her, and has their messengers put to death. Finally, 
Hettel, king of the Hegelingen, hears of the beautiful maiden, and 
sends three of his vassals, Frute, Horand, and the grim Wate, 



48 GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 



to make his suit known. Disguised as merchants, they succeed in 
concealing from Hagen the real purpose of their visit. Their 
costly wares attract so much attention that Hilde induces her 
father to invite them to the court. Horand wins Hilde's favor by 
his singing, which is so sweet that birds and beasts stop to listen. 
She invites him into her apartments, and there he makes his mis- 
sion known. Hilde is not unwilling to marry Hettel, but, fearing 
her father's wrath, consents to be carried away by stratagem. The 
strangers declare that the time for their departure has come, and 
the court is invited to visit their ships and see their wares; but as 
soon as Hilde and her women step on board the sails are hoisted 
and the ships sail away, leaving Hagen in wrath upon the shore. 
The messengers reach their destination and Hilde is kindly re- 
ceived by Hettel. But their joy is of short duration, for, on the 
following morning, Hagen's ships are seen approaching, and soon 
a fierce battle rages. When Hilde sees her father hard pressed by 
Wate, she begs Hettel to separate them. A reconciliation follows, 
and after twelve days Hagen departs. 

Hilde bears Hettel two children, a son, Ortwin, and a daughter, 
Gudrun, who surpasses even her mother in beauty, and is in con- 
sequence jealously guarded by her parents. Many kings sue for 
her hand. Among the rejected suitors are Siegfried of Morland, 
and Hartmut, son of Ludwig of Normandy and his ambitious 
wife Gerlind. King Herwig of Seeland, who also woos Gudrun, is 
not so easily dismissed, for one morning he surprises King Hettel 
by approaching with an army to storm his castle. When the com- 
bat grows hot, Gudrun interposes. Herwig's courage has won 
Gudrun's heart and she is betrothed to him. When Siegfried 
hears of this, he makes war upon Herwig, who is saved from de- 
feat by the timely arrival of King Hettel. Hartmut meanwhile 
seizes this opportunity to carry Gudrun and her maidens away to 
Normandy. Hettel quickly makes peace with Siegfried and 
hastens after the robbers, whom he overtakes at the island of 
Wiilpensand, where a terrible battle takes place, in which Gud- 
run's father is slain by King Ludwig, and the Normans escape in 
the night with their captives. Wate and Ortwin wish to pursue 
them to Normandy, but Frute convinces them that the distance 
is too great, and their number too small for such an undertaking, 



THE PERIOD OF THE HOHENSTA UFEN 49 



and the Hegelingen sorrowfully return home to wait until another 
generation has grown up to swell their ranks. 

When King Ludwig nears the coast of Normandy he again 
presses Gudrun to marry his son, but she remains firm in her 
resolve to be true to Herwig, which so angers him that he takes her 
by the hair and throws her into the sea, and she would have 
drowned had not Hartmut rescued her. Gerlind and her daughter 
Ortrun have come down to the shore to greet the returning con- 
querors, but when Gerlind is about to greet Gudrun with a kiss, 
the angry maiden steps back in disgust, knowing that the haughty 
queen is to blame for all her misfortune. Hartmut still hopes to 
win her love and treats her with great kindness; but soon he is com- 
pelled to go on an expedition, and Gudrun is at the mercy of the 
cruel Gerlind, who separates her from her maidens and compels 
her to go barefoot in the snow and wash clothes in the sea. Only 
the faithful maid Hildeburg is allowed to share Gudrun's tasks. 
One day, while they are at work, a swan appears and tells them 
that they are soon to be rescued. Early next morning, while 
Gudrun and Hildeburg are again at work on the shore, a boat ap- 
proaches in which are two men, who prove to be Ortwin and Her- 
wig. They inform Gudrun and Hildeburg that the old heroes 
Wate, Frute, and Horand are coming with a large army to attack 
the Normans. Gudrun now defiantly throws the clothes into the 
sea and proudly returns to the castle. She pretends at last to be 
willing to marry Hartmut, and a great feast is prepared, and 
costly garments are provided for her and her maidens. 

On the following morning the Hegelingen storm the castle, and a 
fierce conflict ensues. King Ludwig falls, and Hartmut is saved 
only by the intercession of his sister Ortrun, who has been kind to 
Gudrun in her captivity. The Hegelingen take fearful vengeance 
upon the Normans, but peace is finally made and they return to 
their home with rich booty and many captives, among them Hart- 
mut and Ortrun. Happy at meeting her daughter again Queen 
Hilde forgets her hatred of the Normans, and a triple wedding 
takes place; Gudrun marries Herwig, Ortwin the princess Ortrun, 
and Hartmut is wedded to Hildeburg. 



Ger. Stu. Man. — 4 



50 GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 



2. The Epics of Chivalry 

From 1 1 70 to 1250 French romances were most 
popular at the courts. The works of the Trouveres 
were translated by knight-poets into German. The 
stories of King Arthur and his Round Table repre- 
sented ideal knighthood and furnished material for 
German epics. Heinrich von Veldeke, who makes an 
exception in selecting the story of Aeneas for his 
epic, was considered the father of chivalric poetry 
by his contemporaries. The three most prominent 
epic poets of the Hohenstaufen are Hartmann von 
Aue, Gottfried von Strassburg, and Wolfram von 
Eschenbach. 

Hartmann von Aue 

As vassal of the lords von Aue, the poet took the 
name Hartmann von Aue. He took part in the 
crusade of 1197, and was distinguished for his learn- 
ing. Besides love songs, he wrote two romances, 
Erec and Iwein, and two legends, Gregorius and 
Der arme Heinrich. The romances were based upon 
the Arthur romances, which were taken from the 
French poet Chrestien de Troyes; Gregorius is 
founded on a French poem, while his best-known 
work, Der arme Heinrich, is taken from a Latin 
story. 

Erec, a knight of the Round Table, has grown careless and in- 
different concerning his duties and spends his time in idleness at 
the side of his wife Enite, neglecting to visit the court. When his 



THE PERIOD OF THE HOHENSTA UFEN 51 



wife tries to rouse him from his sloth, he becomes angry and forces 
her to start out with him to seek for adventures. As a punish- 
ment, she is not allowed to speak to him, even when his life is in 
danger, but, when she repeatedly forgets his commands and her 
own life is threatened, he rescues her. She has manifested con- 
stancy, patience, and humility, which soften him and win his love 
anew. Reunited they live at Arthur's court until after the death 
of Erec's father, when Erec ascends the throne. 

Iwein. The knight Iwein is a counterpart of Erec. As the 
latter forgot his knightly duties by paying too much attention to 
his wife, Iwein is in danger of neglecting his wife by continued 
absence from her. He had promised his wife Laudine, when he 
set out in search of adventures, to return within a year, but breaks 
his promise and trifles away her affection. Lunete, her servant, 
appears at King Arthur's court, accuses Iwein of infidelity, and 
snatches the ring of her mistress from his finger. This drives him 
to madness and he lives a long time alone in a forest, until three 
women find him and cure him with a magic salve. He then leaves 
the forest, taking with him a lion which he has rescued from a 
dragon, and together they overcome two giants and free three 
hundred maidens from imprisonment. After gaining fresh renown 
at Arthur's court as the "Knight with the Lion," Iwein returns 
to his wife and again wins her love. 

Gregorius. While a child, Gregory is put into a boat and 
drifts to a foreign shore. There he is reared by an abbot, who 
learns from a slate which he finds in the boat that the boy is of a 
royal family. When he is fifteen years old Gregory discovers the 
secret of his birth, starts out to find his home, and comes to a 
country which is being invaded by an enemy. He liberates the 
queen and marries her, but is horribly shocked when he learns 
that she is his mother. He immediately leaves her, does penance, 
and lives miraculously for seventeen years on a lonely island in the 
sea. Here he is found by the Romans, who inform him that God 
has ordained him pope. When his mother hears of the miracles 
which the new pope has wrought on the sick, she, too, makes a 
pilgrimage to Rome. Here mother and son recognize each other 
and they live side by side in the pious fulfillment of their duties. 

Der arme Heinrich. Heinrich von Aue is a rich, handsome 



52 GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 



and beloved knight of noble birth, whose home is in Swabia. He 
is suddenly stricken with leprosy and is avoided by everybody, for 
no physician is able to heal him. A wise man of Salerno alone 
knows of a remedy, which, however, seems unattainable; it is the 
life blood of a young maiden who is willing to die for him. With 
a sad heart Heinrich returns home, gives away the greater part of 
his possessions, and lives with a simple farmer who is very much 
attached to him. The childish and loving presence of the farmer's 
nine-year old daughter is his only comfort, and when years after- 
ward she learns how the knight may be restored to health, she 
resolves to sacrifice herself for him. Heinrich and her parents try 
in vain to dissuade her, but finally allow her to accompany the 
knight to Salerno. When poor Heinrich hears the physician whet- 
ting his knife, a feeling of remorse for his selfishness comes over 
him, and he forces his way into the master's room and demands 
that the life of the maiden be spared. He is now resigned to the 
will of God. This resignation is his salvation, for he soon recovers 
and returns to Swabia, where the self-sacrificing young maiden 
becomes his wife. 

Gottfried von Strassburg 

Gottfried von Strassburg, the author of the famous 
epic poem Tristan und Isolde, was a man of genius, 
but lacked simplicity and originality. We know very 
little about his life, but we are told that he died about 
1210, before his great work was finished. From the 
title " Master Gottfried" instead of "Sir Gottfried" 
we conclude that he was not a knight. His epic, 
Tristan und Isolde, was borrowed from a French 
poem and represents the irresistible force of love. 

Tristan und Isolde. After relating the history of Tristan's 
parents, King Riwalin of Parmenia and his wife Blanchefleur, 
Gottfried describes the youthful experiences of his hero. Tristan, 
who when a boy had lost his parents, seeks honor at the court of 



THE PERIOD OF THE HOHENSTAUFEN 53 



his uncle, King Marke, in Cornwall, England. In a duel he kills 
Duke Morold, a relative of the king of Ireland, but receives a 
wound from his poisoned sword which can not be healed except by 
the wife of the Irish king. As a gleeman, Tantris by name, he 
comes to the Irish court, is introduced to the queen, who then heals 
him, and he finally instructs Isolde, her daughter, in music. He re- 
turns to Cornwall and describes the beautiful maiden to his uncle, 
Marke, who now has a strong desire to possess her, and sends 
Tristan back to Ireland to woo her for him. At first he succeeds 
in remaining incognito, but is finally discovered to be Morold's 
murderer. When Isolde learns this, she attempts to kill him, but 
her mother intervenes. Tristan, finding that he can not gain his pur- 
pose by cunning, informs the queen of his mission, and she suc- 
ceeds in obtaining the consent of the king to the marriage. Before 
the party starts for Cornwall, the queen gives to her niece Bran- 
gane, who is to accompany Isolde, a love potion which she is to 
give to Marke and his bride on their wedding day. On the way, 
however, Tristan and Isolde unsuspectingly empty the goblets, 
which they thought filled with wine, and forget that King Marke 
is awaiting them. Arriving at Cornwall, Isolde is married to the 
king, but persists in her love for Tristan. When Marke learns of 
this secret love he compels Tristan to leave the court. As an exile 
now, he wanders through many lands in search of adventure, 
until he comes to the duke of Arundel, who also has a daughter 
by the name of Isolde. Tristan falls in love with her, but can not 
forget Isolde of Ireland, and often accuses himself of infidelity. 

This is the end of Gottfried's poem. Later writers 
have continued the story, which concludes with the 
marriage of Tristan with Isolde of Arundel. At 
death, the two lovers, Tristan and Isolde of Ireland, 
are reunited and buried in one grave. 

Wolfram von Eschenbach 
Wolfram von Eschenbach, the greatest German 
poet of the Middle Ages, took his name from the vil- 



54 GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 



lage of Eschenbach, near Ansbach in Bavaria, where 
he was perhaps born and where he was buried. He 
was a knight in the service of Count von Wertheim, 
although he may not have been of noble birth. He 
owned a little fief, Wildenberg, which was given to 
him by the count. Again and again he left his home 
and family to visit at the Wartburg, where he found 
Landgrave Hermann of Thuringia, who died in 1217, 
the most appreciative and zealous patron of his art. 
Wolfram died about 1220. His most celebrated 
work is Parzival. He also wrote two incomplete 
poems : Willehalm, after a French model, and Titurel, 
taken from the saga-cycle of Parzival. 

Parzival 

Parzival was partly borrowed from French poems 
of Celtic origin, and represents deep religious ideas. 
Since the poet could neither read nor write, his 
sources were often misinterpreted. Parzival repre- 
sents knighthood as a powerful moral force in life 
and teaches that man can only find salvation through 
faith. Doubt may condemn a man, but manly cour- 
age elevates him. 

This epic opens with the history of ParzivaPs father, Gahmuret, 
the younger son of King Gandin of Anjou, who, not wishing to 
serve his elder brother, sets out to seek his fortune in the East. He 
enters the service of the Caliph of Bagdad and wins the hand of 
the Moorish queen, Belakane, whom he has rescued from her 
enemies; but, before the birth of their son Feirefiz, Gahmuret's 
roving spirit urges him on, and he makes the difference of religions 
a pretext for leaving her. Gahmuret, in the course of his ad- 



THE PERIOD OF THE HOHENSTA UFEN 55 



ventures, reaches France and takes part in a tournament; the 
prize, Herzeloide, Queen of Valois, falls to him, and he marries 
her. But again he becomes restless, and goes back to the East and 
falls in battle. 

Herzeloide now devotes herself entirely to her son, Parzival. 
To remove him from the temptations which proved so fatal 10 his 
father, she leaves her court and retires into the wilderness of 
Soltane, where young Parzival grows up in ignorance of the world. 
When he once hears his mother use the word God, he says: "O 
tell me, mother, what is God?" She answers: "He is brighter 
than the day, yet his countenance is as the countenance of men." 
One day while out hunting, he meets some knights in shining 
armor; thinking each of them must be a god, he falls on his knees 
before them. They inform him that they are not gods, but knights, 
and explain to him what knighthood is. At once a longing to be a 
knight seizes him, and his mother's entreaties are powerless to 
turn him from his determination to go to King Arthur's court. 
She dresses him in fool's garb, in the hope that he may be ridiculed 
and return to her; but as soon as he is out of sight she dies of a 
broken heart. Unaware of his mother's death, Parzival journeys 
on, following in childlike obedience too literally the advice she 
has given him. 

His mother has called him only bonfils, cherfils, or beaujils, and 
he does not even know his name until he learns it from his mother's 
niece, Sigune. Parzival arrives at Arthur's court and soon proves 
himself a dangerous opponent. In ignorance of the laws of chiv- 
alry, he slays the Red Knight, Ither, plunders the body, and rides 
away on Ither's horse to the castle of the old knight Gurnemanz, 
who becomes his teacher. Among other things Gurnemanz warns 
him against useless questions. 

Parzival again goes forth, still innocent of wrong, but no longer 
a simpleton, and by his bravery wins the hand of the beautiful 
queen Condwiramurs of Pelrapeire. They live very happily to- 
gether; but the desire to see his mother and the love of adventure 
soon lure him away from his wife. After a day's ride he arrives at 
a lake, and is invited by a fisherman to lodge at a neighboring 
castle. Here he is well received and is ushered into a hall, where he 
sees many strange and beautiful things. Four hundred knights 



56 GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 



surround the wounded host, who is no other than Anfortas, the 
King of the Grail. Through a half-open door Parzival sees a 
beautiful old man lying on a couch. The knights go through the 
mystic ceremony of the Grail, — Parzival hears on all sides the 
groans and lamentations as the bleeding spear is borne through the 
hall; but he remembers the teaching of Gurnemanz, and even when 
Anfortas alludes to his suffering, Parzival refrains from asking 
questions. Next morning when Parzival awakes from troubled 
slumbers he finds the castle deserted, but his horse is at the door. 
He rides out into the forest until he again meets Sigune, who inter- 
prets the wonders through which he has just passed. Parzival has 
been at Mont Salvat, the home of the Grail-King Anfortas. The 
simple inquiry of sympathy which was expected from him would 
have healed the king's wound, and Parzival himself would have 
become the sovereign of the Grail. Parzival sorrowfully goes his 
way, and not until he has reached Arthur's camp does he realize 
the enormity of his offense. He has just been received with honor 
as a Knight of the Round Table. At the feast which follows, a 
terrible woman appears, — it is Cundrie, the messenger of the 
Grail. She curses Parzival for his lack of sympathy. He has for- 
feited the great prize, is accursed of fortune, unworthy of honor, 
and beyond the hope of salvation. Laden with such a curse Parzi- 
val no longer considers himself worthy of a seat at the Round 
Table and determines to renounce all pleasure until he has found 
the Grail anew, and made the inquiry concerning the king's mis- 
fortune. 

When his friend Gawan wishes him God's blessing on his 
journey, he calls out: "What is God?" He believes that if there 
were a divine power it would not have allowed this disgrace to 
come upon him. He renounces his allegiance to God and declares 
that God may punish him if it pleases Him. With doubt in his 
heart Parzival leaves Arthur's court. 

To give us a complete picture of chivalrous life, the poet, after 
describing the deeds of Parzival, introduces Gawan, who repre- 
sents the worldly elements in contradistinction to Parzival, the 
representative of the higher life. For five long years Parzival 
wanders about on land and sea, and the author allows us to see 
him only at long intervals still seeking the Grail. 



THE PERIOD OF THE HOHENSTAUFEN 57 



On a Good Friday morning he meets a pilgrim knight who di- 
rects him to the pious hermit Trevrizent, Parzival's own uncle. 
Parzival confesses his sins and learns from Trevrizent the mysteries 
of the Grail. 

Again Parzival sallies forth and meets a heathen knight in splen- 
did armor, — it is Feirefiz, his brother. As strangers the two 
knights engage in a fierce combat. Parzival's spear is broken, but 
Feirefiz is too magnanimous to take advantage of his opponent's 
misfortune and asks him his name. Recognition follows, and to- 
gether they ride to King Arthur, who admits Feirefiz to the Round 
Table on the following day. 

Cundrie once more appears; this time to declare that Parzival 
has been ordained King of the Grail. Parzival presents himself 
before Anfortas and asks the important question, and from that 
moment Anfortas is healed and Parzival is proclaimed king. 

3. The Lyric Poetry of the Courts 

The Minnesingers. For about two centuries 
(1 150-1350) the literature of Germany was under the 
influence of the Minnesingers, who were imitators of 
the French Troubadours. The word "Minnesang" 
is used to designate the court lyrics in general, be- 
cause its theme is "Minne" or " Frauendienst " (rev- 
erence for womanhood); but some of these songs 
were also of a religious character, inspired by the 
crusades. The Minnesinger invented his own form 
of stanza and his own tune, and was sometimes a 
wandering peasant who went from village to village 
singing his songs, or very often an educated singer 
who practiced his art at the court. The language 
was the Swabian dialect of the Hohenstaufen. 

Tieck thus describes the character of the Minne- 



58 GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 



sang of the Swabian era: "Believers sang of faith; 
lovers of love ; knights described knightly actions and 
battles; and loving, believing knights were their 
chief audiences. The spring, beauty, gayety, were 
subjects that could never tire; great duels and deeds 
of arms carried away every hearer, the more surely 
the stronger they were painted; and as the pillars 
and dome of the church encircled the flock, so did 
religion, as the highest authority, influence poetry and 
reality, and every heart in equal love humbled itself 
before it." 

Walther von der Vogelweide. Walther's 
songs themselves give us information concerning 
his life. The date, as well as the locality of his birth 
and death, is unknown. Tradition has it that he 
died and lies buried in Wiirzburg; but several places 
claim the honor of being his birthplace, among them 
the modest castle of Vogelweide, in Southern Tyrol. 
He says in one of his songs: "In Austria I learned 
•to sing," perhaps at the court of the dukes Leopold 
and Friedrich. We must believe that Walther was a 
South German, for he used the Bavarian dialect. 
He may have been of noble family, but he was so 
poor that he was compelled to wander from court to 
court, dependent upon the generosity of his patrons. 
Walther frequently visited at the Court of the Land- 
grave of Thuringia. When in 1 2 1 5 the Hohenstaufen 
Friedrich II. came to the throne, a fief was given to 
the poet which enabled him to live free from want. 



THE PERIOD OF THE HOHENSTAUFEN 59 



"It is very little/' he says in another song, "and of 
that the priests, who have chests full, come and de- 
mand a goodly share." 

Walther's poems are distinguished by sincerity 
and a wide range of thought. He followed the 
crusades and was a keen observer of the world. 
Most of his poems are, however, love songs which 
are pure and highly extol woman's gentle qualities. 
He oftentimes criticises the conditions of the empire, 
praises generosity, complains of the instability of 
worldly things, and admonishes men to self-control 
and brotherly kindness. An ancient portrait of the 
poet represents him as he pictures himself in the 
poem, meditating on honor, worldly good, and God's 
grace : 

Upon a stone, moss-sheeted, 

Cross-legged I was seated; 

My arms upon my knees did rest. 

"Whilst in my hands, as in a nest, 

Both chin and cheeks lay nicely. 

Then pondered I how wisely 

We in this world might move and live. 

Yet could my mind no counsel give. 

— Kroger. 

Cf. Longfellow's Walter von der Vogelweid. 

4. Didactic Poetry 

During the two centuries following the decline of 
the Swabian Era, German literature gradually as- 
sumed a more practical character. Nevertheless 
some of the sententious poetry of the Minnesingers, 



6o GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 



reaching back even to the Spervogel collection in the 
twelfth century, was didactic, but now the writing 
of didactic poems was left almost entirely to the 
clergy and the bourgeois poets. The only nobleman 
of this time who attempted didactic poetry was 
Herr von Winsbach, a Bavarian, whose work Der 
Winsbeke is superior to the later writings of this 
period. This poem, which is in the form of a father's 
counsels to his son, 'n fifty-six stanzas, expounds 
and idealizes the system of knighthood. 

Fiosidank's Bescheidenheit is the most popular 
collection of gnomes in the Hohenstaufen period. 
It consists of epigrammatic poems which admonish 
men to be virtuous and refined, to treat women re- 
spectfully, to live circumspectly and avoid vices of 
all kinds, and to use good practical common sense. 

Stricker, an Austrian of the middle of the thir- 
teenth century, is recognized as the most prominent 
German mediaeval story-teller. He was not only an 
epic poet, but also a satirist, and his tales generally 
end with a moral. 

Hugo von Trimberg lived at the close of the 
Hohenstaufen period, and is the best representative 
of didactic poetry after Freidank. His long poem 
Renner, written in his old age, is a sort of code of 
morals for those who can not understand the writ- 
ings of tbe church fathers. In it he preaches against 
pride, greed, avarice, intemperance, and the higher 
classes. 



THE PERIOD OF THE HOHENSTAUFEN 61 



The Close of the Middle Ages 

With the extinction of the Hohenstaufen the Ger- 
man Empire lost its importance as a united power. 
It began to be divided into territories whose princes 
considered their oath of allegiance as a mere formal- 
ity, while the emperors sought only to establish and 
enlarge their power. The spirit of chivalry was dying 
out among the nobles, and gradually new customs 
and ideas were fostered by the burgher classes, which 
led to jealousy and civil strife. During the four- 
teenth and fifteenth centuries no poetical work of any 
value was produced, but the people were rapidly 
rising in intelligence and culture. German industry, 
discoveries, the arts of engraving, woodcarving, and 
printing flourished. Great cathedrals were building, 
and universities were established, while the expan- 
sive power of Germany in relation to other coun- 
tries was on the decline. 

There were still wandering minstrels, but they 
had become very inferior and devoted themselves 
to the Volkslied, which was often crude and with- 
out beauty. Two noblemen, Graf von Montfort 
and Oswald von Wolkenstein, as well as the 
poet Heinrich von Meissen, called "Frauenlob," 
strove, it is true, to preserve the spirit of chivalry and 
the Minnesang, but without success. 

When the Minnesingers had passed away, an- 
other class of poets, the Meistersingers, attempted 



62 GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 



to carry on the work in a more scholarly and system- 
atic manner. Many of the old Minnesingers were 
called Masters; in fact they were the founders of 
the Meistergesang, which reached its highest devel- 
opment in the sixteenth century, when guilds and 
singing schools had been established in Ulm, Augs- 
burg, Nuremberg, and many other cities. The mem- 
bers of these guilds were required to observe good 
morals and lead an honorable life. The aspirant 
for honors in one of these schools had to pass through 
four preliminary grades; he first learned, as "Schil- 
ler," the laws of the "Tabulatur." These learned, 
he became a "Schulfreund," and when he had mas- 
tered at least four tunes he was called a "Singer." 
The rank of "Dichter" was attained by the composi- 
tion of a new text, while the highest honor, " Meister," 
was conferred only on a poet who had invented a 
new tune. The " Sangerkrieg " at the Wartburg, 
which dates back to the close of the thirteenth cen- 
tury, gives a good illustration of the Singing Con- 
test, which later played a very important part in 
the schools of the Meistersingers. One singer chal- 
lenged another and the "Merker" decided on their 
respective merits. The greatest of the Meistersing- 
ers was Hans Sachs, the "cobbler bard" of Nurem- 
berg. 

The German Volkslied, which had existed from 
the earliest times, was, according to Herder, "the 
voice of the whole nation." We find in these songs 



THE PERIOD OF THE HOHENSTA UFEN 63 

much that was popular in the Minnesang : — nature, 
domestic infelicity, love, feasts, and dancing. Al- 
though they were often faulty and inartistic, they 
were nevertheless fresh and true to life. Religious 
topics, also, had at all times filled an important place 
in the Volkslied. The historical ballad reached its 
highest development in the two centuries immedi- 
ately preceding the Reformation. At this time ap- 
peared many of those songs which Herder, Brentano, 
von Arnim, and finally Uhland collected, and which 
live on among the German people to-day. Among 
them some good hunting and drinking songs may be 
found, also some excellent ballads like Heiden- 
roslein, which have been recast by the great poets 
of the nineteenth century, and have thus become the 
property of the people. 

About the fifteenth century the verse epic was 
supplanted by the prose romance borrowed from 
Latin, French, and Italian sources. Many of these 
stories, like the pranks of Till Eulenspiegel, were 
published in the form of Volksbiicher, which became 
very popular, and are still read. 

The Beast Epic Reineke Fuchs, however, continued 
to assert its place in German literature. This trans- 
lation of the Low German poem Reynke de Vos was 
published at Liibeck in 1498, and has, as Carlyle 
says, " extinguished all the rest, inasmuch as all 
subsequent translations and editions have derived 
themselves from it." Goethe's version of it has 



64 GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 



made it continue as one of the most popular German 
books ever written. 

The most important work at the close of the 
Middle Ages is Sebastian Brant's Narrenschiff, 
which reveals many follies of the age and describes 
various kinds of fools on their way to " Narragonien " 
(Fool's land). It was translated into Latin, English, 
Dutch, and French. 

The Drama had its origin among the early Teu- 
tons and was fostered and cultivated by the church 
and the clergy. From the Latin Christmas and 
Easter plays, which may be traced back to the 
Carlo vingian period, there gradually developed a 
German religious drama. Material for these dramas 
was found in the Mysteries and Passion Plays, the 
story of the Wise and the Foolish Virgins, the Vir- 
gin Mary, and the various saints. The Oberam- 
mergau Passion Play, which is performed at the 
little village of Oberammergau in Bavaria every ten 
years, is a relic of these ancient Mysteries. The 
Fastnachts spiel (Carnival Play) was especially popu- 
lar during the fifteenth century, and marks the rise 
of the secular drama. On Shrove Tuesday the 
young people in the towns presented dramatic scenes 
representing the clownish peasant, the quarrelsome 
wife, the quack doctor, the beggar-monk, or the dis- 
solute prince or king. It remained for Hans Sachs to 
make these farces of lasting interest and value. 



THE PERIOD OF THE RENAISSANCE AND 
THE REFORMATION 



Humanism and the Renaissance, inventions and 
discoveries, all united to revolutionize the world at 
the close of the fifteenth century. The Humanistic 
movement, an intellectual revolution, was a test of 
reason as applied to the ethics of conduct. The 
Humanists were the pioneers of the Renaissance in 
Germany and helped prepare the way for the Ref- 
ormation. The German Renaissance, which was 
a revival not only of the spirit of classic antiquity 
but also of its forms, vitalized the Humanists, and 
during the Reformation was confined almost ex- 
clusively to the religious life. The establishment of 
universities, the revival of classical learning, the in- 
vention of printing, and the discovery of America 
contributed largely to change the intellectual move- 
ment in German literature. The Reformation, too, 
enlisted all powers to produce a new epoch in Ger- 
man history and literature at the beginning of the 
sixteenth century. Carlyle in describing this period 
says: "At the era of the Reformation the didactic 
spirit reaches its acme." Political and religious free- 
dom, as well as ecclesiastical controversies, occupied 
the writers of both prose and poetry. Much was ex- 

Gcr, Stu. Man.— 5 65 



66 GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 



pected from the new struggles for liberty and the 
Protestant cause, but at the close of the century 
fanaticism, dissensions, and the decline of this new- 
literature were manifest. Luther was not spared by 
his enemies, among whom we may mention the 
Franciscan monk Thomas Murner of Strassburg; 
nor did he lack stanch supporters like Ulrich von 
Hutten. Many of the church hymns which were 
written at this time give evidence of religious strug- 
gles; but about 1530, satires, fables, anecdotes, and 
dramatic productions show a tendency to ridicule, 
teach, and amuse. Besides the Volkslied, which also 
flourished in this period, the so-called Volksbiicher 
retained their popularity. They consisted in part 
of sagas which were applied to certain persons like 
the magician Johann Faust and Der Ewige Jude; in 
part, of satires like the adventures of the Schild- 
biirger. 

The principal representatives of the Reformation 
period in German literature besides Martin Luther 
are Hans Sachs and Johann Fischart. 

Martin Luther (November 10, 1483-Febru- 
ary 18, 1546) was born at Eisleben and educated at 
Magdeburg, Eisenach, and Erfurt. He first intended 
to study law, but, frightened by a thunderstorm, de- 
cided to become a monk, and lived in the monastery 
at Erfurt from 1505 to 1508, when he was appointed 
professor of philosophy at the University of Witten- 
berg. In 15 1 1 he spent four weeks in Rome, where 



THE RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION 67 

he was surprised and shocked by the worldliness of 
the pope and the immorality and irreligion of the 
clergy. 

After receiving the degree of doctor of theology at 
the University of Wittenberg in 151 2, he lectured 
there on the Scriptures and preached at the Augus- 
tinian monastery at Erfurt. On October 31, 1517, 
he nailed the ninety-five theses, opposing the sale 
of indulgences, on the church door in Wittenberg. 
Then followed his disputation with Dr. Eck at Leip- 
zig in June, 15 19, and his excommunication in 1520. 
In December of this same year he burned the papal 
bull with the papal decretals before the Elster gate in 
the presence of students and professors. Summoned 
to Worms in January of the next year to answer for 
his conduct, he defended his faith in God and the 
Bible and refused to recant. On his return from 
Worms he found a safe refuge with the Elector Fried- 
rich, at the Wartburg, where, as "Junker J org," he 
began his translation of the Bible. Returning to Wit- 
tenberg, he threw his whole strength into the work of 
the Reformation, of which he was the central figure. 
In 1525 he married Katharina von Bora, a former 
nun. He spent the next twenty years of his life in 
Wittenberg, but his death occurred while he was on a 
visit to Eisleben, his birthplace. Luther's translation 
of the Scriptures, the last edition of which was pub- 
lished in 1545, was of the greatest importance, be- 
cause it was free from localisms and could be easily 



68 GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 



understood by all. Luther and Philip Melanchthon, 
we are told, once disputed over a certain passage : — 
"All I care for," said Melanchthon " is the Greek," 
" And all I care for," answered Luther, "is the Ger- 
man." Besides his translations, Luther was the au- 
thor of many sermons, table talks, and evangeli- 
cal hymns. The first German hymnal appeared in 
1524. In all, thirty-seven hymns are ascribed to 
Luther, among them the well-known hymn Ein' jeste 
Burg ist unser Gott. While attending the Imperial 
Diet at Augsburg in 1530, he translated thirteen of 
Aesop's fables into German. A collection of 2900 let- 
ters, some in Latin, the majority in German, are ad- 
dressed to the pope, princes, and clergy, and to friends 
and members of his family. While Luther lived he 
was the main vital religious force in Germany, the 
center of enthusiasm and educational influence ; when 
he died the unity of German Protestantism died with 
him. 

Hans Sachs (1494-1576), one of the most loyal 
supporters of Luther and the Reformation, was born 
at Nuremberg. His father was a tailor, but Hans, 
who attended school until fifteen years of age, was 
apprenticed to a shoemaker. After five years of 
extensive travel in Germany and Tyrol, visiting the 
various schools of the Meistersingers, he returned to 
his native city, where he died in 1576. Hans Sachs 
was a great poet. His powers of description, his fund 
of humor, his clear style, and the great variety of 



THE RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION 69 

subjects treated, made him the most popular poet 
of the sixteenth century. He wrote more than 6000 
pieces of verse, — about 4275 of which are Master- 
songs; the rest are dramas, fables, comic stories, 
and dialogues. He reformed the Meistergesang, for 
which he used biblical material, and was rightly 
called the last and best of the Meistersingers. 

In his Shrovetide plays more than in any of his 
other works he reflected the customs and conditions 
of his time, giving us a vivid picture of the beggar- 
monk, peasant, merchant, physician, and wandering 
gypsy, as well as of married life, which was his 
favorite theme. Some of his dramas still live on and 
are played by the peasants in Upper Bavaria and 
Hungary. 

Johann Fischart (about 1550-90), was to his 
age, as satirist and story-teller, what Hans Sachs was 
as a humorist. He was a native of Alsace, but we 
know very little of his life. After visiting England, 
France, Flanders, and Italy he lived in Strassburg as 
a lawyer, and died in 1589. His command of lan- 
guage was wonderful, his satirical humor well di- 
rected, his attacks on the Jesuits being especially 
scathing. His style reminds us of Rabelais, whom 
he imitated in his Gargantua. As a poet we see 
him to the best advantage in Das gliickhajt Schiff 
von Zurich. This tells how in the summer of 1576 a 
number of Zurich citizens, whom the city of Strass- 
burg had invited to a shooting festival, undertook 



7o GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 



to cover the distance by way of the Limmat, Aare, 
and Rhine in one day. To convince their hosts that 
this had really been accomplished, they placed be- 
fore them, when they entered Strassburg in the even- 
ing, a large pot of porridge, still hot, which had been 
cooked before setting out from Zurich in the morn- 
ing. 



THE PERIOD OF THE THIRTY YEARS' 
WAR (1618-1712) 



In the latter part of the preceding period literature 
as well as science was gradually developing; English 
comedians visited Germany, bringing with them some 
of Shakespeare's plays and Marlowe's Faustus; but 
progress in all departments of education, culture, 
and religion was greatly retarded by the terrible con- 
flicts of the Thirty Years' War (1618-48). This 
struggle between Protestants and Catholics not only 
devastated and depopulated Germany, but also in- 
troduced undesirable foreign customs and threatened 
a complete dismemberment of the nation. Although 
the war resulted in the establishment of equal 
rights for the Catholic, Evangelical, and Reformed 
churches, the religious life of the people was greatly 
affected by the bitter strife. 

Not until the close of the seventeenth century did 
Philipp Jakob Spener succeed in inculcating the idea 
that true piety consists, not in the letter of the law, 
but in deep religious feeling. Rationalism, which 
had spread from England and France, found its chief 
exponent in Leibnitz. The church hymn was the 
true expression of the religious feeling of the people 
and found its greatest development in this period. 
71 



72 GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 



Scholars and nobles united in an effort to purify 
the language, and to cultivate a new German liter- 
ature. To this end the " Fruchtbringende Gesell- 
schaft" or " Palmenorden " was founded at Weimar 
in 1617, with the object of purifying the language 
from foreign words and dialects. It also helped to 
abolish the coarse tendencies of the sixteenth century, 
and encouraged artistic expression in both prose 
and poetry. This society was modeled on the 
Florentine "Accademia della Crusca," and included 
princes, nobles, and scholars, regardless of their 
religious beliefs. Similar societies were formed in 
other places, the most famous of which was the 
" Gesellschaft der Schafer an der Pegnitz" in Nurem- 
berg. While the results of these literary societies 
were unimportant, they may have helped in some 
measure towards the solid foundation of modern 
literature. 

Martin Opitz (1 597-1639) sought in quite a dif- 
ferent manner to reform German literature by 
imitating the Greeks and Romans. His Buck von 
der deutschen Poeterey (1624) was considered the 
chief authority on versification, composition, and 
style until Gottsched's Critische Dichtkunst ap- 
peared. He wrote some excellent poems, and some 
of his hymns were included in the church hymnal, 
but in the novel and drama he never got beyond 
translation, for, although he possessed a versatile 
talent, he was not a creative genius. Opitz was 



THE PERIOD OF THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR 73 



born at Bunzlau in Silesia, and was the founder 
of the First Silesian School of Poetry. This 
school strove after purity of diction and simplicity 
of style, but became too artificial to be of lasting in- 
fluence. 

Among the followers of Opitz are Simon Dach, the 
center of a poetic society in Konigsberg, and author 
of the popular Volkslied Annchen von Tharau; 
Paul Fleming, a young poet of great promise 
who died in his thirty-first year; also Friedrich 
Logau, a writer of epigrams. 

Andreas Gryphius (1616-64), the last repre- 
sentative of this school, was not only considered an 
able writer of lyric poetry, but was also a recognized 
authority among dramatists. It is strange that this 
man of melancholy temperament, who delighted in 
ghost scenes and reveled in carnage, should have 
succeeded better as a writer of comedies than of 
tragedies. His naive humor is best seen in his 
Horribilicribrifax, which satirizes tht military osten- 
tation of the times. Gryphius imitated Shake- 
speare's Midsummer Night's Dream in dis comedy 
Peter Squenz, a witty burlesque on the dramatic 
ignorance of the Meistersingers. Notwithstanding 
his faults and stilted style, Gryphius succeeded in 
appealing to the imagination of his readers and 
making even the driest subjects interesting. He 
forms, as it were, the connecting link between the 
first and second Silesian schools. 



74 GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 



The efforts of the first Silesian school to create 
a pure style soon degenerated into the bombast of the 
Second Silesian School, which rose into exist- 
ence under the leadership of two noblemen, Hoff- 
manswaldau and Lohenstein. These men were 
deficient in original genius, and simply imitated 
and exaggerated the characteristics of Opitz and 
Gryphius, which aroused such a disgust that a re- 
action was inevitable. One of the chief reactionaries 
was Christian Weisse, rector of the Gymnasium at 
Zittau, who, as a good German pedagogue, stood for 
the purity and simplicity of the German language. 
He was a prolific writer of school dramas, which were 
mostly didactic, and were presented by his pupils. 
Weisse was strong in presenting contrasts, and de- 
lighted in surprises, but his dramas do not read well, 
because he introduced too many characters. Two 
other opponents of the second Silesian school were 
Heinrich Brockes and Christian Gunther. 
The former fell under the influence of English 
writers, was a great lover of nature and a religious 
enthusiast. His poetry was collected under the title 
Irdisches Vergnugen in Gott. Gunther was a genu- 
ine genius, but his wild and dissolute habits brought 
him to an early grave. In his best hours he was 
very religious, and his songs of love, sorrow, and 
repentance undoubtedly express his own feelings, 
but they are sometimes marred by coarseness. 

In the second half of the seventeenth century satire 



THE PERIOD OF THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR 75 



became a subordinate element in the German novel. 
French and Spanish models prevailed. The greatest 
novel of this period is Simplicissimus. The author 
of this work, Christoffel von Grimmelshausen, 
had, as a boy, passed through the horrors and 
vicissitudes of the Thirty Years' War. This novel, 
which incorporates many of his own experiences, 
is written in firm prose and gives a realistic picture 
of the demoralized condition of Germany at this 
time. In many respects it may be considered a 
counterpart to Parzival. Another writer of this 
class who was influenced by Spanish models is Hans 
Moscherosch. His chief work is a satirical ro- 
mance, Wunderliche und wahrhafte Gesichte Phi- 
landers von Sittewald, in which, in the form of 
visions, he depicts from his own experience the 
misery and oppression of his humiliated fatherland. 

The most important foreign imitations of this 
period are the Robinsonaden, modeled on Defoe's 
Robinson Crusoe, which is an expression of the 
spirit of adventure foreshadowed in Simplicissimus. 
It was at once translated into German, and imita- 
tions representing every country, and almost every 
trade, sprung up all over Germany; among these, 
Ins el Felsenberg, by J. G. Schnabel, is the best. 

As a conclusion to the period of the Thirty Years' 
War we may call attention to the influence of Abra- 
ham a Santa Clara, a court-preacher in Vienna. 
His homilies and didactic writings are distinguished 



76 GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 



by brilliant wit and scathing remarks concerning 
the customs of the times. Judas der Erzschelm is 
his best work. Schiller found his material for the 
sermon of the Capuchin monk in Wallensteins Lager 
in a volume of Santa Clara's tractates. 

Among the best known hymn writers of this 
period are: Johann Scheffler, who wrote a col- 
lection of hymns called Heilige Seelenlust; Fried- 
rich von Spee, a Jesuit, whose hymns were pub- 
lished under the title Trutz-N achtigal; Joachim 
Neander, author of the well-known hymn Lobe den 
Herren den machiigen Konig der Ehren; Paul 
Gerhardt, the most celebrated of all, who wrote 
131 sacred songs, some of which are very beautiful, 
as Nun ruhen alle W alder; Wie soil ich dich enipfan- 
gen? and Befiehl du deine Wege; and Graf von 
Zinzendorf, founder of the Moravian Brotherhood 
of Herrnhut. 



THE PERIOD OF FREDERICK THE GREAT 

(1712-86) 



At the close of the seventeenth century Germany 
had not yet fully recovered from the effects of the 
Thirty Years' War. France and England had sur- 
passed Germany in intellectual activity, but now a 
new life began to manifest itself. Rationalism and 
then individualism developed with remarkable rapid- 
ity and Germany soon rivaled the other nations of 
Europe in philosophy and literature. Frederick the 
Great, who disdained to read the productions of the 
German poets, has left us a number of poems, letters, 
and political and historical works, all written in 
French, and yet he exerted a powerful influence on 
the development of German literature. His great 
deeds, which again gave to the Germans a hero, 
awakened patriotic life; his own literary activity 
stimulated his contemporaries, and even his aver- 
sion to German poetry was an incentive to German 
writers to put French literature to the test and pro- 
duce something better. 

Prominent as forerunners of the classical period 
we must mention Gottsched and Bodmer. The 
history of our modern German classical period began 
with a literary controversy between Gottsched and 
77 



78 GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 

his Leipzig friends on the one side, and Bodmer and 
Breitinger, who were representatives of the Swiss 
party, on the other. In the first part of the eighteenth 
century Leipzig and Zurich were the chief centers 
of literary activity. Gottsched, who was a professor 
at the University of Leipzig, claimed that it was 
necessary for a poet to follow certain theoretical rules. 
He imitated French models, emphasized moral prin- 
ciples in literature, and tried to reform the German 
stage by the introduction of the French classical 
drama. Bodmer and Breitinger did not object to 
rules, but sought rather to reform literature by 
placing greater stress upon the nature of poetic cre- 
ation; upon the feeling and fancy of the poet and the 
impression made on the reader. They took the 
Greeks and English as models, especially Homer and 
Milton. Gottsched gradually lost his friends, and 
the rapidly advancing spirit of the age declared him 
defeated. 

Albrecht von Haller, a physician in Bern, and 
Friedrich von Hagedorn in Hamburg, although 
poets of independent standpoint, ably supported the 
ideas and theories advanced by Bodmer. Haller 
obtained recognition through his Oden and his 
masterly description of nature in his poem Die Alpen. 
Hagedorn was a poet of a lighter vein and introduced 
the Anacreontic style of poetry into German litera- 
ture. He was the author of Oden und Lieder, Fa- 
beln und Erzahlungen, and a contributor to various 



THE PERIOD OF FREDERICK THE GREAT 79 



literary periodicals. A company of younger poets, 
who became disgusted with Gottsched's pedantry, 
founded a new literary journal known as the Bremer 
Beitrdge. Among the contributors were some of the 
best writers of the time, as Gellert, Elias Schlegel, 
Zacharia, Rabener, and Klopstock. 

Christian Gellert was, next to Klopstock, the 
most prominent contributor to the Beitrdge, and also 
the most popular of the Leipzig writers. As pro- 
fessor of philosophy at the University of Leipzig he 
was deeply beloved, and Goethe, who was at one 
time his pupil, says that his lecture room was always 
crowded. His Fabeln were appreciated by all classes 
alike, and his spiritual hymns are to be found in 
our German hymnals to-day. His Erzdhlungen are 
characterized by their simplicity and naivete. 

One of the master minds of this period was 
Johann Winckelmann, who, by his Geschichte der 
Kunst des Alterthums, aroused the German people 
to a new appreciation of art and greatly influenced 
Lessing and Goethe. About the middle of the 
eighteenth century, Halle and Berlin strove to be- 
come the great literary centers of Germany, but 
towards the close of the century Weimar succeeded 
in attracting the attention of the whole educated 
world. Gleim, Uz, and Gotz, students at the Uni- 
versity of Halle, founded the Anacreontic School of 
poetry about 1740. " Vater Gleim" became popular 
through his patriotic songs and his enthusiasm for 



80 GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 



Frederick trie Great. He was the leader of this 
school and did much to encourage the younger poets 
of the day. In Berlin, Karl W. Ramler, through his 
odes and Horatian love poetry, became the acknowl- 
edged representative of poetic style. Among the most 
prominent of all the patriotic poets of the period was 
Ewald C. von Kleist, an officer in the Prussian 
army, who was mortally wounded in the battle of 
Kunersdorf, in 1759. Encouraged by Gleim, Kleist 
devoted his talents to poetry and became the intimate 
friend of Lessing. He was an ardent lover of nature, 
as is evinced in his poem Der Friihling (1749). 

Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock (1 724-1803) 

Klopstock may well be considered the reformer of 
German literature. He brought order out of chaos, 
studied Milton and the classics, and claimed that 
rhyme was unnecessary, that fancy and a pleasing 
style were the real essentials of poetry. Although 
Klopstock enjoyed a long life, nearly eighty years, 
his literary development was of short duration, for at 
twenty-four he had reached the height of his fame. 
The first three cantos of the Messias and his Odes 
are his best productions, and reveal that strong re- 
ligious idealism which continued to live on in the 
Protestantism of the time. Klopstock was born at 
Quedlinburg in 1724. He attended the celebrated 
classical school at Schulpforta, where his literary 
tastes began to develop, and then studied at Jena and 



THE PERIOD OF FREDERICK THE GREAT 81 



Leipzig. While a tutor at Langensalza in 1750, he 
was invited by Bodmer, a friend of his father, who 
had become interested in his Messias, to visit him in 
Zurich. He remained only six months with Bodmer, 
whose displeasure he aroused by his lack of applica- 
tion to the great work, and was glad to accept an offer 
from the king of Denmark, Frederick V., to make 
Copenhagen his home and complete his work there. 
On the way he stopped at Hamburg, where he made 
the acquaintance of Meta Moller, who afterwards 
became his wife. Although he lived twenty years 
(1751-1771) in Copenhagen free from all care as to 
his livelihood, the Messias was not finished until 1773. 
In 1 77 1 he retired to Hamburg, spending the rest of 
his life there. He died in 1803, and lies buried in Ot- 
tensen, near Hamburg. Klopstock's literary activity 
was not limited to religious writings and the Odes. 
He wished by example and precept to reform the con- 
tent and form of German poetry. His subject-matter 
was to be national in scope; he addressed himself 
to the whole nation, sought his material in the past, 
and celebrated Arminius, the chief of the Cherusci, 
in three dramas, the so-called Bardiete: Hermanns 
Schlacht, Hermann und die Fursten, and Hermanns 
Tod. Klopstock's patriotism found expression also in 
a "War Song," written in honor of Frederick the 
Great, but later dedicated to Henry the Fowler. 

Like Schiller, he was an ardent advocate of liberty, 
and rejoiced at the success of the American Revolu- 

Ger. Stu. Man.— 6 



82 GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 



tion. His strong religious nature is revealed in his 
sacred lyrics, which are full of sympathy, feeling, and 
earnestness. In the Messias we find epic, lyric, and 
dramatic elements well combined. It consists of 
twenty long cantos, nineteen of which are written 
in hexameter verse. Although Klopstock was in- 
debted to Milton's Paradise Lost for many descrip- 
tions of man's fall and redemption, yet, in spite 
of the numerous criticisms of his great work, it 
marked the beginning of a new literature for Ger- 
many. The poem begins with the scene on the 
Mount of Olives and ends with the completion of 
man's redemption, when the Savior takes His place 
on the throne at the right hand of His Father. 

Christoph Martin Wieland (i 733-1813) 

Wieland is primarily an epic poet, although he pro- 
duced various kinds of poetry. To a powerful imagi- 
nation, he, like Klopstock, united that easy, pleasing 
style of expression which was so much admired in the 
French writings of the day. By this means he suc- 
ceeded in arousing an interest in German poetry in 
those circles where French literature was known and 
favored. Although Wieland's works are little read 
at the present time, they nevertheless give evidence 
of a strong, romantic, and enthusiastic spirit. 

In contrast with Klopstock, Wieland's poetic ac- 
tivity underwent many changes; but in every period of 
his life he manifested great literary prolincness, so 



THE PERIOD OF FREDERICK THE GREAT 83 

that long before his death his works were published 
in forty-two volumes. 

Wieland was born in the little village of Oberholz- 
heim near Biberach in Wiirttemberg, where his 
father was a Lutheran clergyman. While yet a 
student at the University of Tubingen he wrote 
several poems, taking Klopstock as his model. Bod- 
mer, the Swiss critic, having read several of these 
poems, invited Wieland to Zurich. Here he remained 
about seven years as guest and tutor, and then went 
to Bern as teacher, returning in 1760 to Biberach, 
where he was appointed to an office in the city govern- 
ment. Up to this time Wieland had composed epics, 
two dramas, and many hymns, all in the spirit of 
Klopstock, although he began even at this time to 
clothe his characters in Greek garb. Contemporane- 
ously with his change of residence, Wieland became 
less enthusiastic and more frivolous, and vied with 
Voltaire in writing satirical and humorous tales. 
The most important work written at Biberach, be- 
sides translations from Shakespeare, is Agathon, a 
romance which abounds in long philosophical dis- 
cussions of moral principles. In 1769 he was called 
to the University of Erfurt as Professor of Philosophy, 
and in 1772 to Weimar as Hofrat and tutor of Karl 
August and Constantine, sons of the Duchess Amalie 
where he had the best opportunities for literary work. 
He published a magazine, Der Teutsche Merknr, de- 
voted to literature and politics, translated Latin and 



84 GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 



Greek classics, wrote the operetta Alceste, a, few ro- 
mances like Die Abderiten, and the most famous 
of all his works, Oheron. This romantic poem is 
composed of twelve cantos. The material for it was 
taken from a French romance which tells of the ad- 
ventures of Huon de Bordeaux, and is skillfully in- 
terwoven with the story of the quarrel of Oberon, the 
king of the elves, with his wife, Titania, as it is given 
in Shakespeare's Midsummer Night's Dream. 

The last ten years of his life Wieland spent in Wei- 
mar. He died in 1813, and was buried in the garden 
of his farm at Osmannstedt near Weimar. 

GOTTHOLD EPHRAIM LESSING (i J 29-8 1 ) 

Lessing became distinguished in German litera- 
ture not only as the creator of the German drama, 
but also as the chief representative of standard prose 
and religious tolerance. Lessing's life is a story of 
deprivation and disappointment. He was the oldest 
of a family of twelve children and was early thrown 
upon his own resources, since his father was the im- 
pecunious pastor of the small church in Kamenz, 
Saxony. By means of free scholarships he pursued 
his studies at the Classical School in Meissen, and 
when seventeen attended the University of Leipzig, 
where he was to study theology ; but he became more 
interested in literature and the theater. Through the 
influence of the playwriter Mylius he made the ac- 
quaintance of actors and wrote the comedy Der 



THE PERIOD OF FREDERICK THE GREAT 85 



junge Gelehrte, which was presented in 1748 by the 
famous troupe of Frau Neuber. This same year 
Lessing followed Mylius to Berlin, where he re- 
mained until the autumn of 1755, with the exception 
of one year spent at Wittenberg. Influential friends 
in Berlin to a great extent directed his activity. His 
command of the French language brought him into 
touch with Voltaire whose favor he lost, however, 
through carelessness and indifference. Of more im- 
portance was his friendship with Voss, publisher of 
the Vossische Zeitung, for which he wrote poems and 
reviews. Lessing became intimate also with the 
philosopher Moses Mendelssohn and the publisher 
Nicolai. In the years 1753-55 tne young poet and 
critic published works, which consisted of poems, 
odes, fables, tales, and the tragedy Miss Sara Samp- 
son. 

Miss Sara Sampson 

This is a domestic tragedy written in prose. Less- 
ing found his material in Richardson's celebrated 
English romance Clarissa Harlowe, and developed 
it while in Potsdam in 1755. It was presented for the 
first time at Frankfort-on-the-Oder and was well 
received. The scene interchanges between two inns 
of an English town. 

Act I. Mellefont, a weak rather than licentious man, has 
deserted the passionate and revengeful Mar wood, his former mis- 
tress, and has abducted the sentimental Sara Sampson, who begs 
her lover to marry her immediately. But Mellefont can not en- 



86 GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 



dure the thought of being bound for a lifetime to one woman, and 
offers various excuses for postponing the marriage. Pie learns 
that Marwood is stopping at a neighboring inn and wishes to speak 
with him. 

Act II. Marwood's attempt to estrange him from Sara only 
serves to make him love her the more, and he declares that he 
will marry Sara, even when Marwood tries to intimidate him by 
drawing a dagger in order to kill him. At the same time he 
reveals his weakness in that he can not refuse the angry woman's 
request to see Sara before she leaves the hotel. 

Act III. He introduces Marwood as a distant relative, and she 
tries to gain Sara's sympathy and turn her against her lover. But 
Sara informs her that every obstacle which might hinder the 
marriage has been put aside, for her father, Sir William Sampson, 
whom Marwood has told where the fugitives are hiding, has ar- 
rived and forgiven his daughter, and consented to the marriage. 

Act IV. Under the pretext of bidding Sara farewell, Marwood 
again visits her, and craftily induces Mellefont to leave the hotel. 
When Sara learns who her visitor is she is very much frightened 
and hastens into her room, where she becomes unconscious. While 
her maid rushes to her assistance, Marwood, feigning sympathy, 
also enters, and unnoticed exchanges the medicine for a poisonous 
powder, which the maid then gives to her mistress. 

Act V. Sara feels the approach of death, and Mellefont, who 
has returned, learns what has taken place. When he realizes that 
his sweetheart can not recover he resolves to die with her. Both 
Sara and her father, who is at her bedside, pardon him, whereupon 
Mellefont stabs himself with the dagger which he has wrested 
from Marwood. 

Lessing's desire to be connected with a theater 
took him again to Leipzig in the autumn of 1755, but, 
before he had accomplished much in a literary way, 
he started on a journey to England with the son of a 
rich citizen of Leipzig. They had just reached Am- 
sterdam when the outbreak of the Seven Years' War 



THE PERIOD OF FREDERICK THE GREAT 87 



compelled his companion to return. The occupation 
of Leipzig by the Prussians brought Lessing into close 
relation with Kleist. When the latter left the city, 
Lessing returned to Berlin, where he wrote fables, 
critical essays, and a one-act martial drama, Philotas. 
His friends had meanwhile found him a position as 
secretary to General von Tauentzien, whom Frederick 
the Great had appointed governor of Silesia, and 
whom he now accompanied to Breslau. Here he 
lived until 1765, devoting his time to the theater and 
to his Minna von Barnhelm and Laokoon, which were 
completed later. Finding his secretaryship burden- 
some, he returned to Berlin, where he sought the 
office of librarian in the royal library, but the king 
preferred a Frenchman. In 1767 a German National 
Theater was established in Hamburg, and Lessing 
accepted the appointment of critic and adviser. The 
enterprise was a failure, but to Lessing's connection 
with it we owe that masterpiece of criticism, the 
Hamburgische Dramaturgie. After leaving Ham- 
burg, in 1770, Lessing was appointed librarian at 
Wolfenbiittel where he remained the rest of his life. 

Laokoon, oder uber die Grenzen der Malerei und 
Poesie, Lessing's most important prose work, ap- 
peared in 1766. It is a critical investigation of the 
principles of plastic and poetic art, and was suggested 
by a statement in Winckelmann's Geschichte der 
Kunst des Allerthums. Lessing defines the limita- 
tions of the arts, and taking for example the death of 



88 GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 



Laokoon shows how differently the poet Virgil and 
the unknown sculptor treat the same subject. While 
Laokoon is not, strictly speaking, a contradiction of 
Winckelmann's work, it introduced a new principle 
into aesthetics, cleared up the confusion which ex- 
isted regarding the laws of poetry and plastic art, and 
shows Lessing's unrivaled ability as a critic. 

Minna von Barnhelm 

Minna von Barnhelm is a five-act comedy which 
appeared in 1767, and was presented for the first 
time in the same year in Hamburg. It gives us a 
vivid picture of the time of the Seven Years' War, 
and is the first comedy which depicts German cus- 
toms and German character. 

Act I. As in Miss Sara Sampson, so here the scene is laid in a 
hotel, this time in Berlin. The leading character in the first act is 
Major von Tellheim, a discharged officer who has been wounded 
in his right arm. He paid out of his own pocket a deficiency in the 
war tax in Saxony which he should have collected. After peace 
had been declared the money was not returned to him, because 
his integrity was questioned by the government, which believed 
that he had been bribed by the enemy to pay the deficiency. While 
waiting for some disposition of his case at the capital his means 
are exhausted and he can not pay his hotel bills regularly. He feels 
compelled to dismiss his servant Just, and pawns his engagement 
ring to pay his bills. Notwithstanding his poverty, he not only re- 
fuses to accept the payment of a loan from the widow of his com- 
rade Marloff, but even denies her indebtedness to him. The prof- 
fered aid of his former sergeant major Werner is also indignantly 
rejected. 

Act II. Minna von Barnhelm, an heiress and Tellheim's 



THE PERIOD OF FREDERICK THE GREAT 89 



fiancee, who has only once heard from him since peace was made, 
travels to Prussia in search of him. She unwittingly stops at the 
same hotel in which Major Tellheim has taken up his quarters, and 
soon learns from the landlord that the major is in straightened cir- 
cumstances. He shows her the ring, which she immediately recog- 
nizes and redeems. She requests an interview with Tellheim with- 
out revealing her identity. In the conversation which follows he 
declares that his misfortune will not permit him to marry her. 

Act III. To vindicate this step he writes Minna a letter in 
which he minutely gives the reasons for his action. After Minna 
has read the letter she sends it back to Tellheim by Franziska, her 
maid, and asks for another interview. Franziska's meeting with 
Werner introduces a minor episode which takes up the greater part 
of the third act. 

Act IV. Minna learns through the Frenchman Riccaut that 
Tellheim's case has taken a successful turn, but this is now a mat- 
ter of indifference to her. She craftily plans to convert him 
from his false ideas of honor, and for this purpose instructs 
Franziska to inform the Major that because of her engagement to 
him she has been disinherited by her uncle. 

Act V. When Tellheim hears this he is a changed man and be- 
lieves he is under obligation to share her misfortune. He secures 
money from Werner to redeem his ring and implores Minna to for- 
get what he has said concerning their marriage. When he is fully 
exonerated from all blame and reinstated by the king he sees no 
obstacle in his way; but Minna now uses his own words in proving 
to him how ignoble it would be for her to allow him to marry one 
who has been disinherited. Tellheim does not understand the 
jest even after Just tells him that Minna has redeemed his ring. 
The arrival of von Bruchsal, her uncle, however, brings about the 
desired end. The love episode of Werner and Franziska develops 
into a second marriage. 

Emilia Galotti 

Lcssing transfers the scene of his next tragedy, 
Emilia Galotti, to the duchy of Guastalla on the Po 



GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 



in Italy. Of all Lessing's dramas, this one, which re- 
ceived its present form while Lessing was librarian 
at Wolfenbiittel in 1772, has the most dramatic ac- 
tion and the best delineated characters. It is a de- 
nunciation of the arbitrary power of princes, and 
like Miss Sara Sampson is the story of an abduction. 

Act I. In this act we are introduced to Hettore Gonzaga, the 
prince of Guastalla, a weak, despotic ruler, concerned only with 
the gratification of his own personal desires; also to his chamber- 
lain Marinelli, an unprincipled courtier and cunning intriguer, who 
maintains his influence with the prince by aiding him in his sinful 
indulgences. The prince is so captivated by the beauty of a young 
maiden, Emilia Galotti, that he forgets his former love, Orsina, 
and neglects his official duties. When he learns that Emilia is to be 
married to Count Appiani he is beside himself and calls Marinelli 
to his aid. This evil adviser soon conceives a plan; Emilia's 
lover must be sent out of the city on an embassy without delay, and 
if this can not be accomplished, force must be used. 

Act II. Emilia's father, Colonel Odoardo Galotti, a man of 
firm principles, but of passionate temperament, has come from his 
estate where the wedding is to take place, to learn of the arrange- 
ments which his wife has made. He is dLp leased when he hears 
that his daughter has attended mass alone, and becomes very 
angry when his wife tells him that the prince has been paying at- 
tention to Emilia at social affairs. The father departs and Emilia 
soon comes into the room; she has inherited her mother's excitable 
nature and the resolute disposition of her father, and in great 
distraction tells how the prince sat behind her at mass and ac- 
costed her as she was leaving the church. At the advice of her 
mother she keeps this a secret, and calmly receives Appiani. From 
his brief conversation with Marinelli we are convinced that Ap- 
piani is a strong, upright character. The cLumberlain now ap- 
pears with the request that the count shall leave the city im- 
mediately as the ambassador of the prince. But Appiani, who, at 
any other time, would feel honored wRh this commission, refuses 



THE PERIOD OF FREDERICK THE GREAT gi 



to have his marriage postponed, and when Marinelli insults him he 
challenges him to a duel; the chamberlain leaves with the words, 
"Be patient; Count, only be patient!" 

Act III. The carriage which is to take the bridal couple and 
Emilia's mother to the country estate is attacked by men hired 
for this purpose. A servant of Marinelli, who pretends to come 
to the rescue of the wedding party, takes Emilia from the car- 
riage to the castle of the prince. Emilia's mother is also taken 
there, but in the melee Count Appiani is shot; his last word is, 
"Marinelli." 

Act IV. The abductors have in their plans forgotten two impor- 
tant persons, Orsina and Odoardo Galotti. The former comes un- 
expectedly to the castle for a final interview, which is refused her. 
She learns who the guests at the castle are, and, having met on the 
way the corpse of Appiani, she now sees clearly through the whole 
sad affair. As she leaves the castle she informs Marinelli of her 
intention to announce next day on the market place that he is the 
murderer. Orsina meets Emilia's father at the door, and while 
Marinelli goes to announce his arrival, Orsina improves the oppor- 
tunity to inform the colonel of the death of Appiani and of the 
conversation which Emilia had with the prince at the church. 
Odoardo becomes fearfully incensed at this, looks about for a 
weapon and secures a dagger from Orsina. He does not yet know 
for what purpose he will use it; in any case he wishes his wife to 
be far away, and therefore begs Orsina to take her with her to the 
city. 

Act V. Meanwhile Marinelli has planned how Emilia can be 
permanently separated from her parents. When Odoardo ex- 
presses the wish to take his daughter with him, the chamberlain 
declares in the presence of the prince that the death of Appiani de- 
mands an investigation, and it is therefore necessary that father, 
mother, and daughter be separated. The thought that he is to 
leave his daughter in the hands of her abductor arouses the father 
to a terrible deed. He apparently acquiesces in the prince's pro- 
cedure, and begs only for a brief private interview with Emilia. 
This request can not be denied him. From the lips of her father 
Emilia now hears what has happened, and what is impending. 
She is not terrified by force, but is conscious of her own weakness 



92 GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 



and fears seduction. Only one means of escape remains — death! 
Her father hands her the dagger only to snatch it from her again. 
Then she reminds him of that old Roman who killed his daughter 
to save her from disgrace. Odoardo obeys her command and stabs 
her. The prince passes judgment on the father, and banishes the 
wicked Marinelli with the words: "Go, hide thyself forever!" 

Lessing's position as librarian at Wolfenbiittel was 
unsatisfactory; his salary was small and he desired to 
marry Eva Konig, the widow of a Hamburg friend. 
In 1775 he went to Vienna, where he had hoped to 
find a better position, but instead was compelled to 
accompany the Prince of Brunswick to Italy. After 
a year's absence, he returned to Wolfenbiittel, his 
salary was increased, and he married Eva; but his 
domestic joy was of short duration, for in a little 
more than a year his wife died and his heart was 
broken. During this time Lessing was engaged in 
serious theological controversies, in which he mani- 
fested remarkable ability in his discussions of re- 
ligious questions, and aroused the whole theological 
world, especially Pastor Goeze of Hamburg, by the 
publication of the Woljenbutteler Fragmente written 
by H. S. Reimarus, but published anonymously. 
The most important product of these controversies 
was the dramatic poem Nathan der Weise, which ap- 
peared in the year 1779. 

Nathan der Weise 

This play, in which Lessing advocates religious 
tolerance, was first acted in Berlin in 1783, where it 



THE PERIOD OF FREDERICK THE GREAT 93 



met with but little success; but when it was presented 
in Weimar in 1801, under the auspices of Goethe 
and Schiller, it was well received. A story found in 
the Decamerone of Boccaccio was the source of this 
drama, the scene being laid in Jerusalem at the time 
of the third crusade. The main interest of the drama 
centers in the parable of the three rings which repre- 
sent the three religions, Mohammedanism, Judaism, 
and Christianity. 

Act I. This act presents two sharply contrasted characters, 
Nathan the Jew, and the Patriarch of Jerusalem. Nathan, who 
has just returned from a business trip, learns that his beloved 
foster daughter, Recha, would have been burned to death during 
his absence had not a young Knight Templar rescued her, but 
that she is under the delusion that she was saved by an angel. 
A Dervish now comes to ask a loan for the Sultan, Saladin, who is 
in need of money. Nathan is very sympathetic, unprejudiced, 
and interested in all he hears. The Patriarch makes a far different 
impression upon us. He has sent a Friar to implicate the Templar 
in some villainy, although he knows that the Templar alone, out of 
twenty of his order, has been pardoned by the Sultan, because he 
reminds him of his brother. The Patriarch wishes him not only to 
spy out the weak places in the fortifications of Jerusalem and make 
them known to the crusaders, but to lie in wait for the Sultan, his 
benefactor, and kill him. The Patriarch, however, deceives him- 
self in the Templar, for he is not adapted to play the part of a spy, 
nor does he share the view that "Villainy in the sight of man is not 
always villainy in the sight of God." 

Act II. In this act the virtue of the Templar becomes more 
apparent. When he meets Nathan he declines all thanks for 
Recha's deliverance, and moreover does not hesitate to show his 
contempt for the Jew; yet he can not but appreciate the character 
of this honorable man. "Despise my race," says Nathan, "as 
much as you wish; neither of us has had any choice; are we our 



94 GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 

race? What is a race? Are not Christians and Jews men?" 
Humiliated, the Templar grasps Nathan's hand, and requests his 
friendship. However, before Nathan can take him to his own 
home he is summoned to appear before Saladin. 

Act III. The Sultan needs money, which he hopes to secure 
through a scheme proposed by his sister, Sittah, but is disap- 
pointed. When, in order to entrap him, he asks Nathan which 
of the three revealed religions is the true one, Nathan tells him 
the parable of the rings. The story closes with the admonition of 
the judge to the three brothers: "Well then, let each of you vie 
with one another for uncorrupted love, free from prejudices. Let 
each strive to reveal the power of the stone in his ring by gentle- 
ness, kind forbearance, charity, and with hearty submission to 
God!" Saladin is greatly touched by what he has heard, and in 
an enthusiastic manner manifests his admiration for Nathan, who 
has one request to make. He says that he has so much cash on 
hand that he wishes the Sultan would make use of it. Like the 
Templar, Saladin is humiliated by the Jew. Yet the time is close 
at hand when both are to be perplexed by him. The Templar 
has seen Recha and wishes to marry her, but Nathan hesitates to 
give his consent. The Knight is astonished at this, and a deep 
distrust is awakened in him when he learns through Daja that 
Recha is the child of Christian parents, whom Nathan has reared 
according to his faith. 

Act IV. The Templar consults the Patriarch without thinking 
of the consequences, but is aroused when to all his remonstrances 
the Patriarch says: "The Jew must be burned." In an interview 
with Saladin, the passionate nature of the Templar is again made 
manifest. He reproaches the man whose friendship he sought only 
a short time before for having taken a Christian child for the pur- 
pose of rearing it in the Jewish faith, and the Sultan finally be- 
lieves that the young man has good grounds for his suspicions. 

The Friar soon explains Nathan's conduct in this affair. Na- 
than had, eighteen years before, lost his wife and seven sons 
through the fury of the Christians. At that time a prominent 
knight, Wolf von Filneck, sent him by his servant, the Friar, his 
little daughter, because her mother had just died, and he himself 
was obliged to go to war. Nathan, considering it a compensation 



THE PERIOD OF FREDERICK THE GREAT 95 



sent from heaven for his great loss, very gladly adopted the child, 
and reared her as his own. The thought, therefore, that he must 
now give up the child forever was most painful to him. 

Act V. From a prayer book of the deceased Wolf von Filneck, 
which the Friar has carefully preserved, it is discovered that Recha 
and the Templar are brother and sister. Their father was Sala- 
din's brother who, under the name of Filneck, had lived with his 
wife for some time in Germany. When on account of the climate 
the parents again returned to the Orient, they left their son in Ger- 
many under the care of Curd von Staufen, who gave the boy this 
name, and prevailed upon him to become a Templar. Nathan 
has the pleasure of seeing the Templar and his sister united with 
their uncle. 

Soon after the completion of this work Lessing's 
health failed, and he died while on a visit in Bruns- 
wick in 1 781. It has been truly said that Lessing 
lived far in advance of his time ; that he was an ad- 
vocate of religious toleration and modern thought; 
that he paved the way for the national drama and 
liberated the country from intellectual tyranny; that 
he manifested all those qualities which are character- 
istic of a noble, unselfish, and charitable nature. 



THE PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 



German literature was still under the influence of 
Voltaire, the patriotic efforts of Klopstock and the 
aesthetic principles of Lessing having not yet found 
general favor, when new influences came from 
France which produced in Germany an unexpected 
literary upheaval and revolution. 

The reform in political, educational, and social 
conditions in France, brought on by the advocacy of 
Rousseau's ideas, was also destined to manifest it- 
self in Germany. The reforms which seemed im- 
practicable in the eighteenth century became the 
ideals of the poets in the next century and followed 
the movement called "Sturm und Drang." This 
agitation or manifestation of youthful vigor was at 
its highest in 1770-80 and advocated "originality 
and genius" in literature. Its representatives were 
intolerant of all rules and restrictions, and took the 
Volkslied, the Old Testament, Homer, Ossian, and 
Shakespeare as their models. Johann Georg Ha- 
mann, a theoretic writer on the true nature of poetry, 
became the center of the movement, and so interested 
Herder in his teachings that the latter became one 
of his stanchest adherents. Goethe, who was only 
twenty-one and had come under the influence of 
96 



THE PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 97 



Herder, was also imbued with the new spirit. His 
Gbtz von Berlichingen, which appeared soon after- 
ward, was received as the first product of the new 
poetry in which the spirit of Shakespeare seemed to 
appear again. Goethe found imitators in the poets 
Reinhold Lenz, Maximilian von Klinger, Fried- 
rich Muller, and Heinrich Wagner. The new 
ideas were also applied to religion by Johann Lava- 
ter, J.H. Jung-Stilling, and Friedrich H. Jacobi, 
and, in Wurttemberg, Christian F. Schubart ap- 
peared as a representative of this movement against 
political servitude. Through Schubart's influence 
Schiller wrote his first dramas with which the " fer- 
mentation period" may be said to have reached its 
close for the present. 

Among the great thinkers of the time we must 
mention Immanuel Kant, who through his doc- 
trines of morality exerted a great influence on the in- 
tellectual life of this period; also Johann G. Fichte, 
Friedrich W. Schelling, and Georg W. Hegel, — 
each worked out his own theory of ethics, each 
thought his system of philosophy the true solution 
of all metaphysical problems. 

In 1772, the "Gottinger Hain" was founded by a 
group of sentimental, excitable, and poetically in- 
clined students who took Klopstock as their model. 
They disliked Wieland and agreed to "spread re- 
ligion, virtue, emotion, and pure innocent wit." 
The Gottinger Musenalmanach, which had already 

Ger. Stu. Man.— 7 



GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 



been published for three years, became the organ of 
these poets and their friends, among whom were 
Heinrich C. Boie, publisher of this journal, Jo- 
hann H. Voss, the Stolberg brothers, Ludwig H. 
Holty, J. Martin Miller, Matthias Claudius, 
Anton Leisewitz, Friedrich W. Gotter, and 
Gottfried A. Burger. 

Most of the poets of the "Hainbund," except Voss 
and Burger, were of mediocre ability and produced 
nothing worthy of note. The former is remembered 
by his idyls and his translations of Homer; the 
latter, by his sonnets and ballads. Burger's ballad 
Lenore shows evidence of English influence and was 
a stimulus to the Romantic movement in Europe. 

Johann Gottfried von Herder (i 744-1803) 

Johann G. von Herder was born in the village of 
Mohrungen, East Prussia, August 25, 1744. His 
youth was a series of troubles and privations. When 
eighteen he entered the University of Konigsberg, 
and there he came under the influence of Kant and 
Hamann, who prepared him for a position as teacher 
in the "Domschule" at Riga. In the year 1769 he 
decided to travel, as tutor, with the young Prince of 
Hoistein, and while at Darmstadt became acquainted 
with Carolina Flachsland, whom he afterwards mar- 
ried. Weary of travel Herder remained at Strass- 
burg during the winter of 1770-71 to undergo a 
surgical operation on his eyes. Here he first met 



THE PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 99 



Goethe, upon whom his influence was inestimable. 
He called Goethe's attention to Shakespeare and re- 
vealed to him the beauties of national poetry in the 
Volkslieder. An intimate friendship developed be- 
tween the two men, and when in 1776 Herder longed 
for a wider field of activity, Goethe recommended 
him for the position of court chaplain and general 
superintendent of the church in Weimar. Here he 
published those works which have given him such a 
high rank in German literature. With the exception 
of a trip to Italy, Herder lived continuously in 
Weimar until his death in 180?,. 

Herder's reputation rests upon his scholarly ability 
as a translator, and as the author of many theological 
and philosophical writings, through which he be- 
came the most powerful advocate of religion, love, 
and friendship in Germany. His collection of Volks- 
lieder taught the German people the full significance 
of their own past and stimulated a greater love for 
their own country. 

His most widely known work is Der Cid, in which 
he Germanized Spanish romances and manifested 
his finest poetic achievement. Herder's most impor- 
tant book, Ideen zur Philosophic der Geschichte der 
Menschheit, in four parts, gives his conception of the 
evolution of mankind and shows how he endeavored 
to discover the laws which underlie it. This work, 
on which he spent seven years, gives evidence of his 
scientific knowledge and breadth of learning. Herder 



IOO GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 

also published six volumes containing theological and 
educational treatises, didactic poems, legends, and 
mythological fables. 

JOHANN CHRISTOPH FRIEDRICH VON S CHILLER 
(1759-1805) 

Johann Christoph Friedrich von Schiller was 
born at Marbach, Wiirttemberg, November 10, 
1759. His ancestors were of the middle class and 
were bakers and innkeepers. His father, Johann 
Kaspar, was 2 regimental surgeon, who finally rose 
to the rank of major. Schiller was four years old 
when the family moved to Lorch, and seven when 
they settled in Ludwigsburg. Here he attended the 
Latin School to prepare himself for his favorite 
study, theology. Karl Eugen, Duke of Wiirttem- 
berg, who was seeking promising students for his 
new military academy, — the later Karlsschule, — in- 
stituted in the palace " Solitude" near Ludwigsburg, 
offered Schiller a free education on condition that he 
serve the ducal House of Wiirttemberg. 

Schiller was therefore obliged to become a "Karls- 
schuler" when he was but fourteen years of age and 
to study jurisprudence, because theology was not 
taught there. Life at the academy was hateful to 
him. He could not endure the duke's tyrannical 
treatment, nor did he enjoy the strict military disci- 
pline and regulations of the school. His condition 
was somewhat improved when the school was trans- 



THE PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION ioi 

f erred to Stuttgart, in November, 1775, and he took 
up the study of medicine. All the experiences at the 
academy served to kindle in the heart of this liberty- 
loving youth a hatred of tyranny, and to develop that 
spirit of independence which is so characteristic of 
the man. Schiller inclined more and more to the 
study of literature, especially poetry, and says of 
this time, "To escape from arrangements that tor- 
tured me, my heart sought refuge in the world of 
ideas, when as yet I was not acquainted with the 
world of realities, from which iron bars excluded 
me." Clandestinely he read the works of Rousseau, 
Ossian, Klopstock's Messias, Goethe's Cofz, Werther, 
and Clavigo; also Wieland's translation of Shake- 
speare, which so awakened his own poetic impulse 
that he tried his hand at the d~ama, and three 
tragedies resulted: Der Student von Nassau, Cosmus 
von Medici, and Die Rduber, of v hich only the latter 
survives. Schiller left the academy December 15, 
1780, entitled to practice as a physician. 

Die Rauber 

This drama, based upon a story by C. F. Schubart, 
was begun in the year 1777, published anonymously 
in 1 781, and produced for the first time at Mann- 
heim in 1782. It is a revolutionary tragedy and 
created a furore. 

Act I. The two principal characters of the drama are two 
brothers, Karl, the prodigal son, and Franz, the hypocritical 



102 GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 



villain, who wishes to rob his brother of his inheritance and win the 
love of Amalie, his betrothed. Franz is the younger of the two sons 
of the old and weak Count Maximilian von Moor; he is ugly and 
repulsive in manner and loved by none; while Karl, on the other 
hand, is attractive in appearance, ambitious, and tender-hearted, 
although idle and quite frivolous. This disparity displeases Franz, 
and he devises a plan to carry out his evil purpose. He reads to 
his father a letter ostensibly coming from a friend of the family, but 
written by himself, in which he describes Karl as a wicked, in- 
different student at the University of Leipzig, who, with seven 
other students, has been compelled to leave the city to escape the 
law. Franz so influences his father that he is authorized to write 
to his brother that his father does not wish to see him again until 
he has reformed. The villain now thinks his plan has succeeded, 
but he is disappointed in Amalie, who sees through the scheme 
and remains true to her lover. We next find Karl on the boundary 
of Saxony. He has fled from Leipzig, and has penitently written 
his father for pardon, but the answer comes from his brother that 
he mast never show himself again in his home or he will be thrown 
into the tower. When Karl reads this letter he is filled with de- 
spair, and renounces all faith in humanity. One of his com- 
panions proposes to organize a band of robbers with Karl as 
leader. Believing that they can in this way restore justice in the 
world, they withdraw to the Bohemian forests. 

Act II. This act describes the life of this robber band, and also 
shows how far Franz has progressed in wickedness. To hasten the 
death of his father he has the news carried through his accomplice 
Hermann that Karl has been killed in the battle of Prague. This 
so overcomes the father that he becomes unconscious and is be- 
lieved to be dead. The robbers are described as men fearless of 
death, who love liberty more than honor and life, but hate tyranny. 
They are everywhere welcomed by the poor and the oppressed. 
Karl is exceedingly kind to widows and orphans, with whom he 
shares his booty, but he is a veritable demon when he comes in 
contact with a rich man or an oppressor of the people. In attempt- 
ing to surround the robbers the soldiers are overcome; only Roller, 
Karl's most faithful friend, is slain. 

Act III. The death of Roller deeply affects Karl, and when he 



THE PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 103 



learns how bravely the robbers have fought for him, he declares 
that he will never forsake them. But soon thoughts of home and 
Amalie come over him with increased power, and with his band 
he sets out for Franconia. Amalie has learned from Hermann, 
who regrets the part which he has played in this wicked scheme, 
that her lover and the old count still live. 

Act IV. Under an assumed name Karl now comes to the 
castle of his brother. His father's old servant recognizes him im- 
mediately, and Franz also surmises who the visitor is. His con- 
science troubles him and he resolves to poison his guest. But 
Amalie, who feels herself irresistibly drawn to the newcomer, does 
not recognize her lover. In the night Karl returns to the robbers, 
who have encamped near an old ruined castle. Tormented by 
thoughts of suicide and not able to rest, he hears a voice down ih 
the dark dungeon. He breaks open the door and drags out his pocv 
father, who for three months has been languishing in this prison. 
Apparently dead, he had been placed in a coffin, and when he re- 
gained consciousness Franz had him thrown into the tower to die; 
but the sympathetic Hermann had at the risk of his own life caved 
him. When Karl hears this he is greatly enraged at his brother a nd 
threatens to take revenge. He commands that the murderer be 
captured alive and brought before him. 

Act V. We next find Franz struggling with his own conscience; 
the description of his dream of the judgment, the interview with 
Pastor Moser concerning the immortality of the soul, his vain ai 
tempt to pray, and the suicide of the villain, give evidence oi : 
Schiller's great dramatic genius. 

The close of the play shows how justice asserts itself even in the 
life of a robber. The robbers bring the body of Franz, and also 
Amalie, who has meanwhile been informed of what has taken place 
in the forest, to their leader. When the father learns the identity 
of his rescuer he dies, and Amalie is at her own wish killed by her 
lover, who, according to his oath, can not leave the robbers. 

Finally the awful consequences of. his deeds appear to Karl and 
he cries out in despair: "O fool that I was to think that I could 
better the world by deeds of violence, and enforce the laws by law- 
lessness! .... Here I now stand at the close of a terrible life and 
have to realize with wailing and gnashing of teeth that two such 



104 GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 



men as I can overthrow the whole structure of the moral world." 
A prize of one thousand louis d'ors is offered for his capture, 
and to allow a poor man to secure it he surrenders himself to 
him. 

After leaving the Karlsschule Schiller was ap- 
pointed regimental surgeon at Stuttgart by the duke; 
but his salary was small and he was still under the 
strictest discipline. The publication of Die Rauber 
was an expensive burden and, at the time, dangerous 
on account of its revolutionary tone, for Schiller still 
remembered the fate of his friend Schubart, who for a 
similar offense was imprisoned in the castle of Hohen- 
asperg for ten years. On January 13, 1782, Schiller 
stole away to Mannheim to see his first drama played, 
and was gratified with its reception. The duke now 
commanded Schiller to cease "all literary work and 
all communication with other countries," and when 
Schiller for the second time went to Mannheim, he 
had him put under arrest for fourteen days. 

Encouraged by the hopes held out to him by Dal- 
berg, the manager of the Mannheim Court Theater, 
Schiller resolved upon flight. Accompanied by his 
friend, Andreas Streicher, he left Stuttgart in the 
night of September 22, 1782, under the assumed name 
of Dr. Schmidt and went directly to Mannheim. 
Here he was doomed to disappointment and financial 
embarrassment. DalLerg was not ready to assist 
him, and, besides, Schiller felt insecure. Streicher, 
however, was willing to share his funds with him and 



THE PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 105 



they took refuge at Oggersheim, near Mannheim, 
until Schiller had revised and completed his next 
drama, Fiesco. Fearing that even here he was not 
safe from the duke's anger, he accepted the invita- 
tion of Frau von Wolzogen, the mother of one of 
his fellow students, to make his home with her in 
Bauerbach. Here, during the winter of 1782, he 
completed Kabale und Liebe and planned Don Carlos. 
Dalberg, attracted by this drama, invited Schiller to 
return to Mannheim as " Theater Poet," but the 
small salary and continued illness caused him to re- 
sign at the end of the first year. He next turned 
to journalism and founded Die Rheinische Thalia, 
which gave him greater literary influence, but was 
financially a failure. 

At this time Duke Karl August, of Weimar, to 
whom Schiller had read parts of Don Carlos, con- 
ferred upon him the title of Hofrat (court counselor) 
but this did not relieve him of financial straits. This 
relief was left to his ardent admirer, Christian Gott- 
fried Korner, father of the poet, Ke.rl Theodor Kor- 
ner, who invited Schiller to come to Leipzig, where a 
new life was to open for him. 

Fiesco 

This play, which was written in prose, was per- 
formed in Mannheim, Januarv, 1784, under the title 
Die Verschwdrung des Fiesco zu Genua, ein Repub- 
likanisches Trauerspiel. As a political drama, it 



io6 GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 



is a glorification of Republican ideas; but since 
there was no inclination toward political freedom 
in Germany at the time, the play was not as well re- 
ceived as Die Rauber. Although a tragedy of a state 
as well as of an individual, its characters are su- 
perior to those in the preceding drama. The scene is 
laid in Genoa in the year 1547. 

Act I. The Doge of Genoa, the honorable and affable Andreas 
Doria, has displeased his people by allowing his dissolute nephew, 
Gianettino, his probable successor, too much authority and in- 
fluence. Verrina, an old, stubborn republican, plans a conspiracy, 
but only Fiesco, the Count of Lavagna, is capable of being the 
leader. He, however, does not appear to concern himself with the 
affairs of his country, apparently considering feasts of more im- 
portance. He even goes so far as to carry on a love affair with 
Julia, the disreputable sister of Gianettino, thus seeking to con- 
ceal his ambitious designs. Fiesco hopes in this way to make his 
cause more secure and to put himself at the head of the state. 
Gianettino fears Fiesco, who, like a magnet, attracts the dis- 
satisfied element to himself. He sends the sly and bold Moor 
Hassan to kill Fiesco, who, however, is on the watch, disarms his 
would-be assassin, and secures him for his own service. 

Act II. The time has now come for Fiesco to act. The dis- 
satisfaction which Gianettino's overbearing conduct at the election 
of a procurator and judges of the peace has caused gives Fiesco an 
excuse for arousing the nobility and people to a general uprising 
and revolution. He allows the Moor to wound him and then drags 
him before the court to confess that he has been bribed by the 
prince. When the people have been thus aroused against the 
house of Doria, Fiesco begs to have the Moor pardoned. When 
Gianettino hears of this, he prepares to have the German troops 
enter the city within two days; Fiesco and twelve senators are to 
be put to death, and Gianettino himself is to rule in place of his 
uncle. Fiesco has also prepared himself for an emergency, hav- 
ing summoned four galleys and two thousand men to serve him; 



THE PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 107 



but he is still undecided whether he ought to free Genoa or place 
himself at the head of the state. 

Act III. After a restless night Fiesco decides to seek the ducal 
crown, and fortune seems to favor him. The Moor has come into 
the possession of a document which reveals Gianettino's plans, 
and he also confesses that he has been commissioned by Julia to 
poison Fiesco's wife, the faithful and virtuous Leonore. The con- 
spirators have now sufficient cause for proceeding, but Verrina has 
seen through Fiesco's scheme and resolves that he must die. 

Act IV. Preparations are now completed for the insurrection; 
the leaders and soldiers are already assembled at Fiesco's court, 
when the news comes that the Moor whom Fiesco had dismissed, 
since he thought he had no further use for him, has betrayed the 
conspiracy to the Doge. This rumor is confirmed when the 
Doge, soon thereafter, magnanimously sends the Moor in bonds to 
Fiesco, who immediately releases him. A final attempt is made 
by Leonore to persuade her husband to desist from his plans, but 
in vain, for at this moment a shot gives the signal for the uprising. 

Act V. Fiesco, who does not wish to be outdone in generosity 
by the Doge, now hastens to warn him. The Doge flees when his 
German bodyguard corroborates the news of the insurrection, but 
soon returns, believing that the Genoese will not desert him thus 
and drive him into a foreign land in his eightieth year. Mean- 
while the Moor has been seized and hanged as an incendiary, and 
Gianettino has been slain by one of the conspirators. When 
Leonore, who in her anxiety for her husband wanders through the 
streets in male attire, comes upon the corpse of Gianettino, she 
takes off his scarlet robe and hangs it about her shoulders; and so it 
happens that conflicting reports are circulated concerning the 
death of the prince, and Leonore is stabbed by her own husband. 
Stirred to greater deeds by the death of his wife, Fiesco hastens 
to the Signoria to be proclaimed Duke. Clothed in purple robes, 
he meets Verrina on the way to the harbor. When the usurper 
will not listen to Verrina's friendly advice the old patriot decides 
that Fiesco must die at once. As ruler, Fiesco first of all resolves to 
free the galley slaves, but just as he is about to cross the bridge to 
the ship, Verrina thrusts him into the sea. At the same time one 
of the conspirators hurries to Verrina with the news that Andreas 



io8 GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 



Doria has returned and that Genoa is giving him a glad welcome. 
Verrina also goes to greet and serve his old master again. 

Kabale und Liebe 

This bourgeois tragedy was first presented on the 
stage in April, 1784. The original title of the play 
was Luise Millerin, but it was changed at the sugges- 
tion of the poet and actor Iffland, of Mannheim. It 
is written in prose and has as its leading thought class 
prejudice and corruption at the princely courts. 

Act I. Luise, the daughter of the town musician Miller, loves 
Ferdinand, the son of President von Walter, who has by unjust 
methods become minister of a petty German court. The attention 
which the young major is paying Luise, encouraged by her short- 
sighted mother, does not please her father, who thinks more of 
honor than of personal gain. Luise, a type of the virtuous maiden 
of the middle class, clings with the passion of youth to Ferdinand, 
who, in spite of the wickedness of the court, has kept himself 
pure, and hopes to overcome all the difficulties and marry Luise. 
The proud president and his secretary, Wurm, skilled in intrigue 
and incapable of believing in true love, have a united interest in 
preventing the marriage. The president wishes his son to marry 
Lady Milford, a rejected mistress of the prince, so that the presi- 
dent's influence may be strengthened at the court; and Wurm 
desires to marry Luise. Accustomed to act quickly, the president 
sends von Kalb, a low-minded simpleton, to make known at the 
"Residenz" that Lady Milford is to marry his son, and at the 
same time he commands Ferdinand to seek her hand without 
delay. Ferdinand is determined to thwart his father's plans, and 
hopes to induce Lady Milford to reject him. 

Act II. Lady Milford appears to be a far different person than 
Ferdinand thought. Although she has been ambitious to be the 
first lady of the court, she has used her influence to relieve poor 
subjects. Ferdinand had intended to reproach her for wrong- 



THE PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 109 



doing, but when she confesses her love for him, his attitude toward 
her is changed. The danger which threatens Luise and Ferdinand 
seems now to have increased. The president comes with officers 
to Miller's home to arrest Luise and put her in the pillory, but 
Ferdinand, who happens to be present, resists them. When he sees 
that he can not turn his father from his purpose he threatens to 
disclose secrets which will be detrimental to the president; this 
has the desired effect. 

Act III. We now find the president exceedingly angry because 
his plans have miscarried, and his secretary evolves a diabolical 
plan. Finding that force will not avail, suspicion is used to trans- 
form love into destructive jealousy. Luise is separated from her 
parents; her father is thrown into the tower, ostensibly because he 
has insulted the president, and her mother is taken to a spinning 
house. They are to receive their freedom only on coDdition that 
Luise writes a letter, at Wurm's dictation, in which she appears to 
be carrying on an intrigue with von Kalb. This letter falls into 
Ferdinand's hands, and he at once plans revenge on von Kalb. 

Act IV. Ferdinand sends for von Kalb and challenges him to a 
duel, but he is too cowardly, and confesses that he does not even 
know Luise. Ferdinand's wrath now turns against the unfortunate 
girl. She meanwhile has had an interview with Lady Milford, who 
sees in the musician's daughter a harmless creature unworthy to be 
considered her rival. But Lady Milford has soon to learn that her 
own charming appearance is not comparable with innocence of 
heart and with that maturity of character which is produced by 
misfortune. The burgher maiden shows her superiority over the 
woman of noble birth and consents to renounce her lover. Lady 
Milford, however, does not wish to be outdone, — she, too, has a 
great soul. To save the loving couple she resolves to leave the 
principality forever; but her magnanimity is shown too late. 

Act V. At the bidding of her father, Luise has given up her in- 
tention of committing suicide, and wishes now to flee with him to 
another country, but before this can be done Ferdinand appears. 
The thought that Luise has betrayed him has overpowered every 
other feeling, and he has come for the purpose of poisoning both 
himself and Luise. He demands that she confess whether she has 
written the letter, and when, in accordance with her oath, she is 



no GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 



obliged to admit it, he asks for a glass of lemonade, into which he 
puts the poison. While Luise is preparing the drink, Ferdinand 
sends her father to the president's home with a letter in which he 
tells what he has done. The last moments of the lovers are very- 
touching, for when Luise finds that she must die she confesses her 
innocence, and discloses the name of the guilty one. She has 
scarcely breathed her last when the president, von Wurm, and a 
great crowd enter and learn the truth. As Ferdinand dies he cries 
out to his father: "I have been treacherously robbed of my life 
through you ! " The conscience of the president is now aroused, for 
he feels the guilt of having loaded a dual murder upon his son. He 
curses his evil adviser, and attempts to wash his own hands of 
guilt; but the sight of the two corpses so affects von Wurm that he 
resolves. to surrender himself to the arm of justice. Ferdinand 
extends his hand to his father in token of forgiveness. 

Don Carlos 

According to the first sketch which Schiller made 
of this play at Bauerbach in 1783, it was to represent 
a domestic tragedy in a princely family. During the 
four years that intervened a new idea was introduced 
in the character of Marquis Posa, who, as a second 
hero, represents freedom of thought and the dignity 
of man in contradistinction to monarchical and ec- 
clesiastical despotism. This drama, written in iambic 
blank verse in 1787, is also revolutionary in character. 

Act I. Don Carlos is a visionary, frank, and thoughtless young 
man, just the opposite of his father, Philip II., of Spain, who is a 
suspicious despot, feared by his subjects and estranged from his 
own family. Carlos' stepmother, the beautiful and intellectual 
Elizabeth of Valois, had been betrothed to him before his father 
took her for his own bride. As time passes, Carlos' love for her in- 
creases to such a degree that the father becomes suspicious. 
Marquis Posa, a true friend of Carlos, has opportunely returned 



THE PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION in 



from the Netherlands to the Spanish court. He cares nothing 
for princely favor and power; his heart longs for the welfare of 
humanity. He has seen the wretchedness of the enslaved provinces 
of Flanders and seeks to gain the good will of Carlos to assist him 
in their deliverance. The service which Posa asks of Carlos seems 
to be the best means of curing him of his love for Elizabeth, who, 
though not insensible to the love of the prince, acquiesces in Posa's 
plan. 

Act II. Elizabeth's indorsement suffices to encourage Carlos 
to free Flanders, but in vain he requests the king to appoint him 
governor of the Netherlands. Philip's selfish counselors, — his 
confessor, the untrustworthy and underhanded Domingo, and the 
proud and ambitious General Alba, — fill his heart with suspicion, 
so that he fears to give his son the weapons for a rebellion. The 
prince's enemies are not satisfied with the refusal of the appoint- 
ment, but seek, if possible, his destruction, for Alba hates him and 
Domingo fears in him a regent who thinks, and therefore might 
destroy the power of the church. Chance seems to favor them; a 
lady in waiting of the queen, the passionate and frivolous Princess 
Eboli, loves Carlos and invites him to an interview. He thinks 
that it is the queen who has invited him and confesses his disap- 
pointment, thereby betraying the secret of his love. This soon 
reaches the ears of Domingo. 

Act III. At the suggestion of Domingo, Eboli takes some letters 
and a medallion of the prince from a strong box which belongs to 
the queen, and gives them to the confessor. Philip believes him- 
self deceived, and his advisers increase his suspicions to such an 
extent that the king himself begins to doubt their sincerity, and 
longs for some one in whom he can confide. He consults his 
records, and his eyes fall upon a name that he has once under- 
scored, for some reason now forgotten. Marquis Posa is the man 
he needs as his counselor in this affair; but the marquis declines, 
saying that he can not be the servant of a prince. He then sets 
forth his ideas of man's dignity and worth, which in Schiller's time 
found an echo in the hearts of thousands. The king is not of- 
fended, believing that he knows mankind better than does Posa. 
The marquis finally complies with the king's earnest entreaties, 
thinking he may in this position be better able to assist his young 



H2 GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 



friend, and also further his own purposes. The king gives him the 
authority to learn the relations between the queen and the prince. 

Act IV. Posa believes he can best serve the king by deceiving 
him. Carlos is to go secretly to Brussels and become the leader 
of a rebellion; his father will then voluntarily give him the position 
which he has requested, and Flanders will be saved. Posa makes 
his plan known to the queen, who is to disclose it to the prince; 
but it is thwarted by Carlos himself. The kind but too officious 
Count Lerma, who, as head of the king's bodyguard, is always 
near the king, has overheard the interview with Posa, and excites 
the prince's suspicion. Carlos believes he has been betrayed, and 
when Posa asks him for his pocketbook, which contains a letter 
which might expose the queen, the prince hastens to warn her. 
Posa appears just as Carlos is opening his heart to the Princess 
Eboli and begging her to secure for him an interview with the 
queen. The secret is now made public, and Carlos seems to be 
lost; but his friend still hopes to save him by sacrificing himself 
for him. He has the prince imprisoned, so that he will not take 
any thoughtless steps, and then writes a letter, addressed to Wil- 
liam of Orange, — for he knows that all letters for Flanders are 
given over to the king, — in which he appears as the guilty person; 
he asserts that he himself has loved the queen and through the 
monarch has found a way to approach her freely; fearing that he 
might be betrayed by Carlos he has had him imprisoned, and he 
himself is now ready to flee to Brussels. The letter falls into the 
king's hands, and Posa's doom is sealed. 

Act V. During the last interview with Carlos a shot through the 
prison gate kills the marquis. Indescribable is the grief of Carlos, 
fearful the shock when the king learns the true state of affairs. 
Meanwhile the queen has devised a way of escape for the prince; 
he is to take the mail coach which will await him at a Carthusian 
monastery; but before he leaves he is to pass through the palace 
halls at midnight in the form of the dead emperor, and visit the 
queen in her apartments. But not only are all the preparations 
for flight disclosed, even the plans which Carlos was to carry out 
when he reached the Netherlands are discovered. The king is 
still in doubt whether he ought to allow his son to flee or not. The 
Grand Inquisitor answers the question for him, and Don Carlos 



THE PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 113 



is captured in the queen's apartments and given over to the exe- 
cutioner. 

Schiller went to Leipzig in the spring of 1785, 
where he found in Korner a true friend, who not 
only provided a home for him in Leipzig and Gohlis, 
and later in Dresden and Loschwitz, but who also 
relieved him of all financial cares and enabled him 
to pursue his studies in philosophy and history. 
During this time he wrote for the Thalia, finished 
Don Carlos, and composed a number of excellent 
lyrics, of which his ode An die Freude is the best. 
His study of history led him to begin the Geschichte 
des Ab jails der Niederlande, and he continued to 
work on a romance, Der Geisterseher. A visit to 
Weimar in 1787 brought him into touch with many 
prominent people, and gave him an opportunity to 
visit the University of Jena. In Rudolstadt he be- 
came acquainted with Charlotte von Lengefeld, and 
here about a year later he met Goethe, who helped 
him to obtain a professorship of history in the Uni- 
versity of Jena, where he gave his first lecture in 
May, 1789. The following February he married 
Charlotte at the little church at Wenigenjena. Al- 
though Schiller and Goethe had met in 1788, they did 
not become intimate friends until 1794. Schiller's 
ability as a historian manifested itself in the Ge- 
schichte des dreissigjahrigen Krieges, and in his his- 
torical dramas which followed . But again his activity 
was checked by illness and financial embarrassment; 

Ger. Slu. Man.— 8 



H4 GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 



this time help came from an unexpected source; the 
Duke of Holstein, Friedrich von Augustenburg, and 
Count von Schimmelmann learned of his destitution, 
and generously offered him a thousand thalers a 
year for three years, so that he was able to make a 
trip to Karlsbad and to visit his old home in Wiirt- 
temberg. After he had finished his Geschichte des 
dreissigjdhrigen Krieges, he gave himself up more 
completely to the study of Kant's philosophy. Schil- 
ler's most important work on aesthetics, the Briefe 
iiber die asthetische Erziehung des Menschen, was 
published in his new journal, Die Horen, in which 
Goethe took a very active interest. Owing perhaps 
to the poor taste of the public, Die Horen did not 
prove a success and Goethe and Schiller were criti- 
cised, but they retaliated by writing a collection of 
satiric epigrams, called Xenien, which were pub- 
lished in Schiller's Musenalmanach for 1796. Criti- 
cism was, for a time at least, silenced; the air was 
cleared, and both poets felt it incumbent on them to 
follow up their victory with some great and worthy 
work of art. 

In the following year, which is called the ballad 
year, appeared the following ballads: Der Taucher, 
Der Handschuh, Der Ring des Polykrates, Ritter Tog- 
genburg, Die Kraniche des Ibykus, and Der Gang 
nach dem Eisenhammer. These were followed at in- 
tervals by Der Kampf mit dem Drachen, Die Biirg- 
schajt, Hero und Leander, and Der Graj von Habs- 



THE PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 115 



burg. All these ballads express noble sentiment and 
illustrate some principle of moral conduct. 

As a poet Schiller evinced great ability. His 
poems reveal not only the purity and beauty of his 
own character, but also the purest poetic ideals com- 
bined with true artistic form and language. He was 
an idealist of the highest type. His fondness for the 
lyric and his ability to give expression to tender feel- 
ings and emotions are seen to good advantage in the 
Reiterlied in W allensteiw? s Lager, the Fischer-, Hirten- 
and Jagerlied in Wilhelm Tell, Des Madchens Klage, 
Der J tingling am Bache, and many other poems. Re- 
flective and noble are the sentiments expressed in the 
so-called "Ideendichtung," which may be divided 
into four classes : 

1. Symbolical narratives or poems which pre- 
sent human experiences in narrative form, as Pegasus 
im Joche, Die Teilung der Erde, Das verschleierte 
Bild zu Sais, Kassandra, Das Sieges jest, and Der 
Alpenjager. 

2. Symbolical descriptions. These poems show 
the development of an idea in the description of some 
real or imaginary event, as Der Spaziergang, Das 
Eleusische Fest, Die Macht des Gesanges, and Das 
Lied von der Glocke, the most famous of all his poems. 
It is a vivid and charming picture of life from the 
cradle to the grave, together with a description of 
the making of the bell; it was written in 1799. 

3. Allegories, in which some thought or idea is 



n6 GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 



represented by poetic word painting, as Das Mdd- 
chen aus der Fremde and Der Pilgrim. 

4. Aphorisms, which express certain ideas in a 
simple and unstilted form, as Hofjnung, Die Worte 
des Glaubens, Die Worte des Wahns, and Spriiche 
des Confucius. 

From this time on Schiller continued his labors 
indefatigably, and produced in rapid succession 
Wallenstein (1798-99), Maria Stuart (1801), Die 
Jungfrau von Orleans (1802), Die Braut von Messina 
(1803), and Wilhelm Tell (1804). Schiller provided 
the German stage also with the translations of Mac- 
beth, Turandot, Der Parasit, Der Nefje als Onkel, and 
Phadra. This restless activity was sure to find its 
reward, for everywhere his writings were eagerly 
sought and read. In 1799 Schiller took up his resi- 
dence in Weimar, where he could devote more time 
to his literary labors and enjoy an increased income 
from the Grand Duke Karl August, who also se- 
cured from the emperor Schiller's elevation to the 
rank of nobility, — an honor which was greatly ap- 
preciated by the family. Efforts were made to attract 
Schiller to Berlin, where he and his family visited in 
the spring of 1804, but Weimar offered inducements 
which he could not well resist. His frail constitution 
could not stand the tremendous strain and his health 
gradually failed. Schiller's last tragedy, Demetrius, 
and other work which he had planned were left 
unfinished. On the 29th of April he was taken 



THE PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 117 



seriously ill in the theater, and he died on the evening 
of May 9, 1805, at the age of forty-five, mourned by 
the whole nation. In 1827 his body was exhumed 
and placed in the ducal vault where it rests at the 
side of Goethe and Karl August. 

Wallenstein 

Schiller had for years cherished the idea of repre- 
senting the life of Wallenstein in dramatic form. Fi- 
nally on account of the extensive plot which he wished 
to present, he decided to divide it into three parts: 
Wallensteins Lager, as an introductory play, and 
two five-act dramas, Die Piccolomini and Wallen- 
steins Tod; the former gives the exposition in all its 
fullness, while the latter is in itself a complete tragedy. 
Wallensteins Lager was put upon the Weimar stage 
in October, 1798; Die Piccolomini, in January, 1799, 
and Wallensteins Tod, in the following April. 

This trilogy may be regarded as the greatest and 
most complete tragedy in the literature of the 
eighteenth century. 

Wallensteins Lager 

In this prologue we obtain a panoramic view of the soldiers of 
the Thirty Years' War. In the camp before Pilsen we see the 
ruined peasant who seeks to repair his fortune by gambling with 
loaded dice; the self-conscious sergeant, who thinks he knows 
more than other people; the simple Croat, who allows the sharp- 
shooter to get the better of him; Gustel von Blasewitz, the buxom 
sutler woman; the spirited Capuchin Friar, and the noble-minded 
Cuirassier, whose stirring song: "Wohlauf Kameraden, aufs 



Ii8 GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 



Pferd, aufs Pferd! " is still a national favorite. This heterogeneous 
army, which is held together only by the powerful name of Wallen- 
stein, forms the background of the two dramas. 

Die Piccolomini 

Act I. Von Questenberg, the imperial envoy, has come to 
Wallenstein's camp to ask him to evacuate Bohemia, and to send 
a detachment of eight regiments of horse to the Spanish Prince 
Cardinal. He is at the same time to ascertain the fidelity of Wal- 
lenstein's officers and soldiers, for it has been rumored in Vienna 
that the great commander is not loyal to his sovereign. The in- 
solent manner in which Questenberg is received by the generals 
does not tend to reassure him. Lieutenant General Octavio Pic- 
colomini, a resolute, double-faced man, does not hesitate to cast 
suspicion upon his commander, and makes use of the implicit 
confidence which Wallenstein places in him to find out his plans, 
that he may betray them to the emperor. But Max, his son, is 
a youthful idealist, who clings to his leader with absolute devotion, 
and even Questenberg can not destroy his faith in him. 

Act II. We now find Wallenstein, Duke of Friedland, at the 
height of his power. His one aim, in which he is abetted by his 
sister-in-law, Countess Terzky, is his own aggrandizement. He 
is a firm believer in astrology, for the stars have foretold his great- 
ness. His clear, penetrating mind, cold reserve, and commanding 
presence have gained the respect and devotion of the great army 
which he has himself created, and upon which he relies for help 
in securing the goal of his ambition, the crown of Bohemia. To 
this end, however, it is necessary for him to enter into an alliance 
with the Swedes; but he is unwilling to do this without first con- 
sulting the stars. Up to this time all negotiations have been 
carried on by the unscrupulous Field Marshal Ulo and Wallen- 
stein's brother-in-law, Count Terzky. They now urge the duke 
to act, but he only answers, "The time has not yet come." In his 
conversation with Questenberg, Wallenstein plays the part of the 
injured one, and declares in the presence of his generals that he is 
willing to resign his leadership, for he knows that this threat, 
more than anything else, will bind the officers more closely to him. 



THE PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 119 



Act III. This act presents the idealism of love in contrast with 
the intrigues of selfish ambition. The lovers, Thekla, Wallen- 
stein's daughter, and Max Piccolomini, are not historical charac- 
ters. Thekla, like Max, despises intrigue, but she is a shrewder 
observer than he, and discovers in her aunt, the Countess Terzky, 
a schemer who favors the love-affair only to unite Max's fate with 
Wallenstein's. She is suspicious of her own father, and warns 
her lover not to confide too much in men. 

Act IV. Illo has undertaken to obtain the signatures of the 
generals, pledging them to follow their commander, even though 
he prove a traitor to the emperor; but this can only be done under 
false pretenses. At a banquet given by Terzky, a document is 
presented to the officers in which they declare their loyalty to the 
duke, "in so far as the oath to the emperor will permit." After 
all have read this it is exchanged for a copy omitting the important 
clause, and it is then unhesitatingly signed by the half-intoxicated 
officers. Two men, however, are not blind to the deception, — 
Octavio Piccolomini, and Colonel Buttler, but they also sign the 
paper; the one to conceal his duplicity, the other out of hostility 
to the emperor, who, he fancies, has insulted him. Max alone does 
not sign his name, preferring to "defer the business until the next 
day." 

Act V. Octavio informs Max of Wallenstein's treason and 
shows him a full imperial patent by which Octavio is empowered, 
at the first step which the duke shall openly take against his 
sovereign, to depose him and himself assume command of the 
army. These disclosures tend rather to lessen Max's confidence 
in his father than to destroy his ideal of his hero. Even the report 
that Sesina, Wallenstein's messenger to the Swedes, has been cap- 
tured, does not convince the young enthusiast, and he hastens to 
learn the truth from the duke's own lips. 

Wallensteins Tod 

Act I. The capture of Sesina forces the duke to decide whether 
he will submit to the emperor, or openly desert him. The network 
of fate is fast closing in around him, and all circumstances seem 
united to incriminate him. He casts his lot with the Swedes, for the 



120 GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 



stars, which he has been observing with old Seni, the astrologer, 
seem to favor this course. 

Act II. To Octavio Wallenstein blindly intrusts an important 
position, which this faithless friend naturally turns to his own ad- 
vantage. Before he leaves the camp he wins over to himself most 
of the officers, but Buttler hesitates. Not until Octavio shows him 
a letter written by Wallenstein to the imperial minister, in which 
he opposes Buttler's advancement, does he consent to leave him. 
Buttler now becomes Wallenstein's mortal enemy, and longs for 
revenge. In the touching farewell scene between father and son, 
Max refuses to accompany his father, but assures him, ''Unworthy 
of thee wilt thou never see me." 

Act III. Nemesis follows fast on Wallenstein's footsteps. 
Regiment after regiment leaves him and swears allegiance anew 
to the emperor. But the hardest blow comes when Max, after a 
fierce inward struggle, forsakes him and proves his loyalty to his 
emperor by leading a wild charge against the Swedes, in which 
he seeks and finds a soldier's death. Only Buttler, whom the duke 
has been somewhat inclined to distrust, pretends to remain true to 
him. But the first news which his false friend brings him is that 
Prague is lost; that the Bohemian cities have gone over to the 
emperor, and that Wallenstein himself is accused of treachery. 

Act IV. Fortune seems again to smile upon the duke, who has 
escaped to the fortress in Eger. The Swedes have successfully 
repulsed the attack of Max Piccolomini, and will within twenty- 
four hours join the duke, who thus sees a new road to victory open 
to him; but already death and destruction hover over him. Butt- 
ler had expected to imprison the duke in Eger, but his plans are 
frustrated by the approach of the Swedes, and he resolves upon 
Wallenstein's death. 

Act V. Evil omens warn the hero of his death; Countess 
Terzky has evil dreams concerning him, and an ominous change 
is also noticed in the planets. When Seni urges him to break 
with the Swedes, Wallenstein says: "The warning should have 
come before! At present I need no revelation from the stars." 
Wallenstein has scarcely retired when Buttler, who has just re- 
turned from the murder of Terzky and Illo at a banquet, 
comes to dispatch Wallenstein also. The commander of the 



THE PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 121 



citadel begs him to wait, but in a few moments the deed is done. 
Almost at the same time Octavio enters with all his train to capture 
the duke. The "House of Splendor, and of princely glory, doth 
now stand desolated," for the duchess is dying, the countess 
takes poison, and Thekla flees to die at the grave of her lover. 

Maria Stuart 

Soon after the completion of Wallenstein Schiller 
began his preliminary work on Maria Stuart, and 
in June, 1800, it was presented in Weimar. The 
poet did not wish to represent the Scottish queen 
and her time according to history, but rather to pre- 
sent a woman whose fate it is to experience and en- 
kindle strong passions. Although the plot is simple 
and compact, the play is too sentimental to be classed 
among his best dramas. 

Act I. Mary Stuart, who, on account of a Scottish insurrection, 
has fled to England, is imprisoned in the castle at Fotheringay. 
The beautiful but unfortunate queen, repenting of her criminal 
past, on the anniversary of the murder of Darnley, her second 
husband, receives the news that she has been found guilty of in- 
stigating a conspiracy against the life of Queen Elizabeth. Con- 
scious of her innocence, she is convinced that the English queen 
and her counselors wish her death, and that only the fear of being 
accused of cruelty hinders Elizabeth from carrying out the death 
sentence. Only one person, Count Leicester, Elizabeth's favorite, 
can save Mar}'. Mortimer, a hot-blooded, foolhardy youth, a 
nephew of the jailor, becomes her messenger to Leicester. 

Acr II. Elizabeth is serious and faithful in the discharge of her 
duties, but vain and revengeful, and can not decide to pardon 
Mary, as sympathetic old Talbot advises, nor is she willing to 
have her led to the scaffold, as the unfeeling Burleigh, who sub- 
ordinates his conscience to the interests of the state, wishes. She 



122 GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 



believes that Mortimer is the man who can help her out of her 
predicament. The young man apparently acquiesces in her 
wishes, only to be the better able to prepare for Mary's deliverance. 
He discloses his plan to Leicester, to whom he brings a letter and 
a picture of Mary. But he is disappointed; for, instead of finding 
in Leicester a resolute man who would surmount all difficulties to 
save the unhappy queen, he finds him a cowardly and double- 
tongued courtier. Leicester loves Mary, but the hope of becoming 
Elizabeth's husband has caused him to feign love for the English 
queen, and to keep himself aloof from her rival. Now, when the 
engagement of Elizabeth to a French prince is imminent, his in- 
terest in Alary is more apparent. However, he does not wish to 
become a party to Mortimer's plan, preferring craftily to hinder 
Elizabeth from signing the death warrant. He thinks if he can 
bring about a meeting of the queens the execution can be pre- 
vented; "for the royal presence brings favor." He persuades 
Elizabeth, by flattering her vanity, to consent to meet Mary. 

Act III. The two hostile queens meet as it were accidentally 
in the garden of the castle at Fotheringay. Mary expects a 
friendly advance from her victorious enemy; Elizabeth, humble 
sobjection from her sorely tried rival. The queenly manner of the 
prisoner only irritates the proud and overbearing English queen, 
who is not satisfied to see her enemy in the dust before her, but 
seems to delight in her misfortune and does not hesitate to abuse 
her in the most shameful manner. The old hatred is again awak- 
ened in Mary's breast and she has the satisfaction of knowing that 
she has deeply wounded the feelings of the queen. To hasten 
Mary's fate an attempt on Elizabeth's life is made while she is re- 
turning from London, which is, however, frustrated by Talbot. 

Act IV. Danger and destruction now seem to threaten Leices- 
ter. The queen receives from Lord Burleigh Mary's unfinished 
letter to Leicester, in which she promises him her hand in mar- 
riage. Leicester tries to save himself by a bold stroke. He has 
Mortimer, who has come to warn him, imprisoned, and informs 
Elizabeth that he had begun the correspondence with Mary merely 
to find out her plans. But he can not justify himself, since Morti- 
mer, upon whom he relied for acquittal, has during his imprison- 
ment committed suicide. Leicester, therefore, to save himself, 



THE PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 123 



is obliged to advise Mary's immediate execution, and it becomes 
his sad duty to see to it that the death sentence is carried out. 

Act V. After Mary has said farewell to her female attendants 
and confessed for the last time, Burleigh and Leicester come to 
prepare her for her end. At the sight of her betrayer Mary for a 
moment loses her self-control, but soon recovers and bids him fare- 
well. Her confession that she had loved him and intended to 
marry him completely crushes the wretched man, whom still 
harder trials await. He has not the courage to witness Mary's 
execution. The sounds which reach his room make it almost un- 
endurable for him to remain, and he attempts to flee. The door, 
however, is locked and he is forced to endure this gruesome pro- 
ceeding until he loses consciousness. Elizabeth meanwhile is 
in doubt as to whether the execution has taken place, and her 
conscience troubles her so that all joy over the death of her rival is 
taken away. When Talbot informs her that one of the witnesses, 
who claimed that Mary was guilty, has confessed in a delirium 
that he had sworn falsely, Elizabeth wishes to have a new trial. 
It is, however, too late, for Burleigh brings the news that Mary is 
dead. To free herself from the appearance of crime she banishes 
the overzealous Burleigh. Talbot resigns his office and leaves 
her with the words: "I am too old, and this sincere hand is too 
stiff to put the seal on thy new deeds." Leicester takes volun- 
tary flight to France, and the queen stands alone in her sorrowful 
plight. 



Die Jungfrau von Orleans 

This drama, described by Schiller as a "Ro- 
mantic tragedy," takes us back to the time when 
France suffered the greatest humiliation (1429-30). 
The chief characters are types rather than indi- 
viduals, and the play in many respects resembles an 
opera. It was completed in April, 1801, and is in 
every particular a finer work than Maria Stuart. 



124 GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 



The prologue shows the distressed condition of France, and ac- 
quaints us with the early history of Jeanne d'Arc, the youngest 
daughter of a rich peasant of the village of Dom Remy. Her 
father wishes to see his daughters married before the English in- 
vaders reach their home, but Johanna rejects Raimond, her lover, 
although he is the best young man in the village, and absolutely 
devoted to her. She has prayed to the Virgin to save France from 
the English, and the Virgin has appeared to her bearing a sword 
and a banner. She is wholly engrossed in the affairs of her country, 
and her strange conduct causes her family much anxiety. When 
the news reaches them that the Duke of Burgundy and Isabeau, 
the king's own mother, have allied themselves with the English 
and that the entire force of the enemy is before Orleans, she be- 
lieves it her divine mission to liberate her people, and leaves her 
home for the court of the Dauphin at Chinon. 

Act I. Johanna now appears as a prophetess. When Charles 
VII, a kind but weak regent, who has been leading a pastoral life 
with the lovely Agnes Sorrel far from the scenes of war, learns of 
the misfortune which has befallen France, he wishes to prevent 
further bloodshed by yielding to the enemy. In vain does the hot- 
tempered Dunois seek to awaken his sense of honor; in vain the 
counselors of Orleans beseech him not to desert them in the hour 
of need; in vain the faithful Du Chatel offers him his life, which 
alone can reconcile the proud Burgundian, — the king remains 
firm in his resolve. But at the decisive moment the news comes 
that Baudricourt, with the help of a maiden, has won a brilliant 
victory. Soon thereafter, Johanna, whose whole demeanor reveals 
her divine mission, is led before the king, whom she recognizes, 
although she has never seen him; she knows of his nightly prayers, 
designates the place where the sword may be found which she is to 
carry, and foretells the death of the British general Salisbury and 
the deliverance of France. To explain her deeds she relates how 
the Virgin Mary appeared to her three nights in succession under 
an ancient oak at Dom Remy, and promised that she should de- 
stroy the enemy and lead the king to his coronation at Rheims, 
if she would renounce earthly love. Her appearance and her 
words inspire every one, and they give credence to her story. 

Act II. Johanna has delivered Orleans and the enemy has fled; 



THE PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 125 



but before the English can find rest in their hastily fortified camp, 
she climbs the ramparts, hurls fire into the camp, and fills the 
enemy with terror. She herself wields the sword in a fearful and 
merciless manner, slaying every one who steps in her way, — for 
the divine voice forbids her to show mercy. After this bloody 
victory she meets Philip of Burgundy, who is not kindly disposed 
toward the English, and wins him to her cause. 

Act III. This act presents the tragic conflict. Johanna has 
thus far appeared to be free from human emotions; she rejects the 
offers of marriage made to her by the impetuous Dunois and the 
brave Lahire, and withstands the spectral black knight, who seeks 
to check her career. Faithful to her duty, she kills every living 
creature that the god of battle sends against her. The renuncia- 
tion of human love is no sacrifice as long as she is not tempted; but 
when she overcomes the handsome young Englishman Lionel, 
and looks into his face, her sword falls from her hand, and her 
vow is broken. 

Act IV. The coronation at Rheims becomes for Johanna the 
source of the most painful sorrow and deepest humiliation. Only 
under compulsion does she carry her banner at the head of the 
procession which conducts the king to the church. Among the 
people who have come to the celebration are the peasants of Dom 
Remy. When Johanna sees her sisters, the memory of home re- 
turns to her as a sweet comfort, and she yearns to cast all care and 
pomp aside and return with them to her home, to be again sister, 
daughter, and shepherdess. But before she can carry out her 
resolution, the king and his train come from the church, and sud- 
denly, while the king hails her before all the people as the deliverer 
of France, her father steps out of the crowd and accuses her of 
being in league with the devil. Heaven itself seems to be against 
her, for heavy thunderclaps follow in rapid succession, and Jo- 
hanna is filled with a sense of her guilt. The people scatter in all 
directions; the king, Lahire, and finally Dunois desert her; only 
Raimond, her faithful lover, accompanies her out of the city. 

Act V. Johanna experiences her last humiliation in the hut 
of a charcoal burner, where even the cup is taken from her lips, 
because it is feared that misfortune will come from the "Witch of 
Orleans." She wanders about in the mountains until she falls 



126 GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 



into the hands of the English. But now she feels that her peni- 
tence has atoned for her guilt, and with the return of her old power 
she again devotes herself wholly to God. In reply to Isabeau's 
insults, as also to Lionel's proffered love, she has only this answer, 
"My people shall conquer, and I shall die." When the news of 
her capture reaches the French, whose warlike spirit has waned 
during her absence, they rush into the conflict anew to free her. 
As the battle rages she sinks to her knees and prays that her fet- 
ters may be broken; her prayer is answered, she wrests a sword 
from a soldier, and hastens into the thickest of the fray. Every- 
thing yields before her; the French army is rallied, the English flee, 
and Isabeau is captured, but Johanna dies on the field of battle, 
her face bright with the light from heaven. 

Die Braut von Messina 

Schiller became so enthusiastic over the works of 
Aeschylus and Sophocles that he also wished to try 
his hand at a tragedy in the antique form. Taking 
Sophocles' Oedipus as his model he selected the 
mediaeval city of Messina as the scene of his fate 
tragedy, which he called Die Braut von Messina oder 
die feindlichen Briider. It was completed in January, 
1803, and was the forerunner of the many fate 
tragedies which appeared in the next two decades. 
Die Braut von Messina is not divided into acts, but a 
chorus is introduced which furnishes a sort of com- 
mentary on what is to follow. 

The Prince of Messina has brought a curse upon his house by 
marrying his father's bride. From early youth jealousy and 
hatred have existed between his two sons. This enmity, which 
their stern father alone could restrain, breaks out with renewed 
fury at his death. Don Manuel, the elder, is reserved and stern, 
the "better son," his mother Isabella, says; Don Caesar is frank 



THE PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 127 



and impulsive, and the real hero of the drama. Isabella finally 
succeeds in bringing about an interview between her two sons at 
which a reconciliation takes place, but she does not surmise that 
love for another has made their hearts more gentle. Don Caesar 
is, however, soon called away by the news that the maiden whose 
image he carries in his heart, but of whom he has lost all trace 
since their first meeting, has been discovered. Don Manuel re- 
joices in his brother's good fortune, for he also has a secret which 
he is about to disclose. He has fallen in love with a maiden whom 
he met some time before while hunting near the walls of a cloister. 
Her name is Beatrice, but she does not know who her parents are. 
She is now in Messina, where Don Manuel brought her when he 
learned that she was to be taken from the convent by her relatives. 
Isabella thinks this an opportune time to inform her sons that they 
have a sister who has grown up in a secret place, and is to-day to 
appear in the family circle for the first time. Beatrice, who was 
even at birth doomed to death by her father because an Arabian 
had warned him that she would cause the death of both her broth- 
ers, had been secretly conveyed by her mother to a convent, for 
her mother had had a dream, which a monk had interpreted favor- 
ably; that the daughter should unite the two hostile brothers in 
love. But the joy which so unexpectedly came to this sad house is 
short-lived. Beatrice has been carried away from the convent. 
Don Caesar wishes immediately to start in pursuit of the robbers, 
but Don Manuel, full of anxious foreboding, hastens to obtain 
further information. 

Beatrice, meanwhile, has suffered hours of anxiety and expec- 
tation. While she is waiting for her lover, Don Caesar suddenly 
appears, and tells her that he intends to make her his bride; 
without waiting for her answer he hastens away and leaves his 
knights as guard. Beatrice can not rid herself of a consciousness 
of her guilt, for she had attended the funeral of the prince against 
the wishes of her lover, and there had met Don Caesar. When at 
last Don Manuel comes, Beatrice confesses her disobedience, and 
he sees through the whole pitiable affair; the brothers love the 
;ame maiden, and that maiden is their sister; but before he can 
make any explanation, Don Caesar appears and in blind jealousy 
kills his brother. The unconscious form of the maiden and the 



128 GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 



corpse of Don Manuel are brought to the unfortunate mother, 
who does not yet know who committed the crime. When Don 
Caesar himself confesses that he is the murderer, the mother is so 
overwhelmed with grief that she disowns him as her son; but she 
soon regrets this step, for she hears that he has resolved to remove 
the curse by his death. The thought of both sons in the grave is 
more terrible to her than the sight of the murderer, and so she re- 
calls her curse and pleads with her despairing son; but just then 
the dirge from Don Manuel's grave comes as an admonition to 
avenge the death of the innocent one, and Don Caesar obeys the 
voice of Fate and stabs himself. 

Wilhelm Tell 

In this play Schiller strove to give a picture of the 
old Swiss people with all their peculiarities, in con- 
nection with a description of the country. Although 
Schiller had never seen Switzerland, he was able 
from his study of the country to portray accurately 
the Lake of Lucerne and its surroundings. His main 
purpose was, however, to show us the Forest Cantons 
of Switzerland, — Schwyz, Uri, and Unterwalden, — in 
the struggle against foreign conquerors. This drama, 
which Schiller based upon a Swiss chronicle of the 
sixteenth century by Aegidius Tschudi, was received 
with great applause in Weimar, where it was per- 
formed on March 17, 1804. 

Act I. In this act we become acquainted with the conditions 
which bring about the Rutli Confederation. We learn how the 
peaceful peasants, who live with their families and their herds, are 
provoked to rebel; how the oppressor seeks to obtain their most 
sacred possessions; how the imperial governor, Gessler, to break 
their stubbornness, builds a fortress, called Zwing-Uri, at Altdorf, 
and erects a pole upon which is placed a hat, to which every one 



THE PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 129 



must pay homage with bended knee and bared head; and how 
Landenberg, the governor of Unterwalden, has the eyes of the old 
Heinrich von Melchthal put out because Arnold, his son, has es- 
caped the revenge of the usurper by flight. In Uri, at the home of 
the honorable, cautious, but patriotic Walther Fiirst, the plan for 
the liberation of the Forest Cantons is devised. Here the young, 
hot-tempered Arnold von Melchthal has taken refuge; to this place 
comes also Werner Stauffacher, "Father of the oppressed," a man 
of mature years, who has been sent by his noble wife, Gertrude, to 
arouse the people to throw off the yoke of oppression. They de- 
cide that each one of them shall in his respective canton win as 
many friends for the cause of liberty as possible, and that they 
shall then, each accompanied by ten trusty confederates, meet on 
a certain night on the Rutli. In this first act we are also intro- 
duced to Tell, a man of deeds, not words. He is best character- 
ized in these words which he addresses to Stauffacher, "Yet, 
whatsoever you do, spare me from council; I was not born to de- 
liberate and select; but when your course of action is resolved, 
then call on Tell; you shall not find him wanting." 

Act II. The Rutli scene occupies the greater part of this act. 
Among the thirty-three men who are assembled, both bond and 
free may be found; that Tell does not appear is not surprising. 
All agree that the governors and their servants must be driven out 
of the country, and the fortified castles destroyed, — if possible 
without bloodshed. The only difference of opinion seems to be 
whether they shall rise up in arms immediately, or wait until a 
later day; the latter opinion prevails, and Christmas is chosen as 
the time for vengeance. The old Baron von Attinghausen is the 
only Swiss nobleman who is in sympathy with the peasants. Ul- 
rich von Rudenz, his young nephew, is attracted to the Austrian 
court by his love for Bertha von Bruneck. 

Act III. While out on a hunt, Rudenz learns from Bertha 
that he has misunderstood her. She confesses that she has asso- 
ciated with Gessler only because her Austrian relatives intrusted 
her to him, but that her sympathies are with the Forest Cantons, 
in which her possessions are situated. If he wishes to marry her, 
he must make himself worthy of her love by assisting in the de- 
liverance of his Fatherland. These words arouse his patriotic 
Gcr. Stu. Man. — 9 



130 GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 



feelings and he soon finds an opportumt ,o show his colors. Be- 
cause Tell has refused to bow before the hat, he is condemned to 
shoot an apple from the head of his young son. Walther, in the 
market place at Altdorf . The apple falls and the bey is uninjured. 
Tell has been seen to conceal a second arrow in his doublet, which 
he fearlessly confesses was intended for the tyrant had the first one 
injured his boy. 

Act IV. To rid himself of this dangerous enemy, the gov- 
ernor has Tell bound and taken to a boat which is to take him to a 
dungeon at Kiissnacht. While they are crossing the lake a fearful 
storm arises, and Tell is unbound to steer the boat, but he escapes 
by leaping out upon a projecting ledge of rock. He hastens on to 
the "hohle Gasse" where he awaits the tyrant and sends an arrow 
through his heart. Tell considers this a sacred duty which he 
owes to his family and his country, as well as the fulfillment of a 
vow made when he was forced to aim at the head of his child. 
Meanwhile the faithful old Baron von Attinghausen dies and at 
his deathbed Rudenz confesses his error, pledges his support to 
the patriots, and implores their assistance in the liberation of 
Bertha, whom Gessler has had secretly abducted. 

Act V. Tell's deed arouses the people to set about the work 
of liberation at once. The cantons rise in force and overthrow 
the strongholds of tyranny, Landenberg flees never to return, 
and the emperor, Albrecht, is assassinated by his nephew, Jo- 
hann von Schwaben. 

Tell turns the parricide from, his door, disclaiming all similarity 
between their deeds, and shows him the way to Rome, where he is 
to confess his crime to the pope. The drama closes with a great 
gathering of the confederates to thank Tell for what he has done 
for his country and the betrothal of Rudenz and Bertha. 

Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (i 749-1832) 

The greatest man in the history of German litera- 
ture is Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, who was born 
at Frankfort on the Main, August 28, 1749. His 
father, who bore the title of Imperial Counselor, was 



THE PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 131 

married at the at 1 A thirty-eight to Katharina 
Elizabeth, the seventeen-year old daughter of Johann 
Wolfgang lYxtor, the chief magistrate of the city. 
Goethe's father was quite wealthy and well educa- 
ted, and had traveled considerably in Germany and 
Italy. Being pedantic and despotic in disposition, 
he was not greatly loved, but was always respected 
for his upright character. He also manifested great 
interest in art and literature and wished to give his 
son every opportunity possible for intellectual de- 
velopment and culture. Goethe's mother was affable, 
genial, full of good humor, and yet dignified and re- 
fined in her tastes. She was the sympathetic com- 
panion of her son and shared his joys and sorrows; 
she called him her "hatschel Hans" and told him 
stories which aroused his youthful fancy; and when 
he became famous she was proud of his achievements 
and entertained his friends. What he inherited from 
his parents he tells in these lines: 

"Vom Vater hab' ich die Statur, 
Des Lebens ernstes Fiihren; 
Vom Mutterchen die Frohnatur, 
Die Lust zu fabulieren." 

Goethe was a very precocious child, who early 
was surrounded by intellectual influences, and never 
knew adversity as did Schiller. He and his sister, 
Cornelia, developed a love for literature and became 
intimate companions in every department of their 
youthful activity. In his autobiography, Dichtung 



132 GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 



und Wahrheit, Goethe gives a full and interesting 
account of his childhood and youth, closing with the 
events of 1775. Before he was twelve years old he 
began to write verses and fantastic tales, and laid 
the foundation for future studies. The old city 
of Frankfort, a marionette theater, the Seven Years' 
War, the occupation of the city by French soldiers 
and the performances of French theatrical troupes 
made deep and lasting impressions on the boy's mind, 
and served to develop that independence and self- 
reliance which characterized him later in life. His 
first love episode occurred in 1764 with Gretchen, 
a Frankfort girl, but it was of short duration. In 
1765, Goethe was sent to the University of Leipzig to 
study law. T eipzig, the "little Paris" of Germany, 
was quite metropolitan and offered the provincial 
student many opportunities of learning and culture. 
French influence was dominant in society and Goethe 
was soon imbued with its spirit. Gellert was enjoy- 
ing literary fame, and greatly influenced Goethe's 
prose style; Gottsched, once recognized as a leader 
in literature, was on the decline. Like Lessing, who 
also studied here, Goethe found the theater the chief 
source of attraction, and considered the lectures of 
the professors dry and uninteresting. He preferred 
to write love songs for the composer Breitkopf, and 
took considerable interest in art and engraving. His 
love for Anna Katharina Schonkopf, a coquettish 
maiden of nineteen, at whose home he dined, gave 



THE PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 133 



him the experience which we find embodied in the 
"Schaferspiel," Die Laune des Verliebten, written in 
1767-68. His second drama, Die Mitschuldigen, is 
also a product of this period and shows Goethe's 
realistic tendencies. His letters to his relatives and 
friends give us the best history of his student life here. 
The three years in Leipzig were wasted by society, 
neglect of study, and a disappointing love affair, and, 
attacked by a hemorrhage of the lungs, he was obliged 
to return home. After he recovered, his father pro- 
posed that he should complete his studies in Strass- 
burg, and on the 2d of April, 1770, he reached the 
city where his literary aspirations were to be stimu- 
lated and his genius discovered. A new circle of 
congenial acquaintances was soon formed, to which 
belonged Jung-Stilling, a part of whose autobiog- 
raphy, Heinrich Stillings Jugend, Goethe published 
in 1777. The most influential of his new friends was 
Herder, already an author of great leputation, and a 
critic second only to Lessing. H ii stimulated Goethe 
to poetic activity, called his attention to the beauties 
of Gothic architecture, and showed him the wealth of 
charm and beauty in the folk poetry and literature of 
other nations. Weyland, a fellow-student, took him 
in the autumn of 1770 to Sesenheim in Alsace, and 
introduced him to the family of pastor Brion. Here 
Goethe met Friederike, a gentle, graceful, simple, 
and lady-like girl with blue eyes and slender figure, 
and soon "the most charming idyl in the history of 



134 GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 



modern literature" developed. The beautiful lyrics 
which this innocent girl inspired gave Goethe a place 
by the side of Walther von der Vogelweide as a lyric 
poet. But before many months had passed Goethe 
discovered the great difference in their stations in life, 
and a separation took place which broke the heart 
of the confiding maiden and filled Goethe's heart 
with sorrow and despair. Friederike never married, 
and when Goethe visited her eight years afterward 
she was unchanged and treated him with the great- 
est courtesy. She died in 1813. In August, 1771, 
Goethe received the degree of licentiate of law and 
returned to Frankfort. The legal profession did not 
attract him as much as the ideals of the Sturm und 
Drang, the struggle against the shallow pettiness of 
social and political conditions and all conventional 
restraints, the right to enjoy life in all its fullness. In 
the spring of 1772 Goethe made repeated excursions 
to Darmstadt, where he met Herder's fiancee, Caro- 
line Flachsland, and J. H. Merck, a man of good 
common sense who exerted a restraining influence on 
the young, enthusiastic poet. In May of the same 
year Goethe went to Wetzlar, the seat of the imperial 
law courts, to prepare himself better for his profes- 
sion; but again he fell in love and only through a 
terrible inner struggle was he able to save himself 
from suicide. Charlotte Buff, the daughter of the 
magistrate, was engaged to a young jurist named 
Kestner, whose friendship Goethe had won. Goethe's 



THE PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 135 



love for Lotte soon became a passion, and a crisis was 
impending; a sudden departure, a visit to Frau Sophie 
von Laroche, and a trip up the Rhine dampened 
his ardor, and the result of the episode was Werther. 
He soon regained his equilibrium and found healing 
for his grief in zealous devotion to literary work. His 
greatest achievement during this period, and the work 
which made him suddenly the greatest writer in Ger- 
many, was Gotz von Berlichingen. 

Gotz von Berlichingen 

In Gotz, the man with the iron hand, Goethe 
pictures the life of an independent knight at the time 
of the Reformation, to whom "might is right." 
Goethe found that the conditions of the time in which 
he lived corresponded in many respects with those 
described in Gotz's autobiography; consequently the 
play appealed strongly to his own contemporaries, 
and when it appeared in 1773, it was greeted by a 
storm of applause. As the first successful historical 
drama, Gotz marks the beginning of a new epoch in 
German literature. 

Act I. Gotz lives in his castle at Jaxthausen. His household 
consists of his wife Elizabeth, a brave, intrepid woman, his sister 
Maria, and his little son Karl. He possesses all the good and the 
bad qualities of a knight of the empire. He is brave and honest, 
and his word is equal to an oath; his greatest treasure is liberty, 
his favorite occupation warfare. When his right hand was shot 
off, he had an iron one made, and learned to wield his sword with 
his left hand. His greatest enemy is the bishop of Bamberg, a 



136 GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 



vain, deceitful man, who, notwithstanding his agreement with Gotz, 
has captured one of his men. This gives rise to a new feud, in 
which Weislingen, Gotz's playmate at school, but now the bishop's 
stanchest supporter, is taken prisoner. Gotz's kindly treatment 
of his old friend wins his heart; he is betrothed to Maria, and 
promises, neither publicly nor privately to assist the enemies of 
Gotz. But Gotz underestimates the weakness of his friend, who 
is both fickle and cowardly. At the court he is better known, for 
"no Weislingen can tear himself away from the handshake of a 
prince nor from the smile of a beautiful woman!" 

Act II. Weislingen returns to Bamberg to put his affairs in 
order, and soon yields to the allurements of court life; he forgets 
Maria and his promise to Gotz, and marries the heartless and 
coquettish Adelheid von Walldorf. He is even willing to go to 
Augsburg to induce the emperor to take steps against Gotz and 
his followers. 

Act III. Gotz is now declared an outlaw, and the imperial 
troops set out to destroy Jaxthausen and kill or capture the in- 
habitants. This proves to be a difficult task, for Gotz has many 
friends who are willing to risk life and limb for him. Franz von 
Sickingen sends him reinforcements, and also relieves him of all 
care concerning his sister by seeking her hand in marriage. The 
soldiers are repeatedly repulsed before they are able to surround 
Jaxthausen, and when they finally succeed, their loss is so great 
that they declare their willingness to allow the prisoners to with- 
draw. But hardly have Gotz and his people passed through the 
gate when they are treacherously attacked and overpowered; some 
of the bravest are killed, others are thrown into the tower, and 
Gotz himself is committed to the tower at Heilbronn to await his 
fate. 

Act IV. The emperor decrees that Gotz must remain at Heil- 
bronn and take oath that he will in no way take revenge on any of 
his enemies. Gotz is willing to submit to these conditions, but 
when he seeks to learn the whereabouts of his men before taking 
his oath, the councilors declare him a rebel, and seek to have him 
cast into the dungeon. In this extremity Franz von Sickingen 
appears with two hundred horsemen, and threatens to set fire to 
the four corners of the city if any injury is done to Gotz. Forced 



THE PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 137 



by the superior numbers of the enemy the councilors allow their 
prisoner to withdraw to his castle on condition that he will remain 
inactive. 

Act V. The idleness to which Gotz finds himself condemned 
is for him the greatest punishment. He, however, keeps his prom- 
ise until the rebellious peasants, who everywhere have risen up 
against their lords, and have overrun the country, murdering, plun- 
dering, and burning, compel him to become their leader. Gotz 
hopes to be of service to the empire by restraining the rebels, but 
he is disappointed; they will not obey him. It becomes an easy 
matter for Weislingen, who arrives with a strong force, to anni- 
hilate the peasants. Gotz is wounded in the conflict, taken captive, 
and thrown into the tower at Heilbronn, where he is condemned 
to death. His fate is in the hands of Weislingen, who himself lies 
ill in his castle; his ambitious wife, Adelheid, has had him poisoned 
because he stood in the way of her plans. Maria comes to the bed- 
side of the dying man to seek her brother's release; this is granted, 
but Gotz can not enjoy his renewed freedom, for he, too, is nigh 
unto death. The circumstances of which he has been a victim 
have robbed him of his strength; while seeking rest and change in 
the prison garden he breathes his last in the arms of his faithful 
wife, with the words, "Es lebe die Freiheit! " upon his lips. Adel- 
heid is convicted of murder and adultery, and condemned to death 
by the Holy Vehm. 

Goethe's attachment to Charlotte Buff furnished 
the material for his romance Die Leiden des jungen 
Werthers, which appeared in the autumn of 1774 and 
became exceedingly popular. It was suited to the 
morbid sentimentality of the age, and the "Werther 
fever" soon spread all over Europe. Johann Lava- 
ter's name was added to the coterie of Goethe's 
friends in the eventful year 1774. Lavater was a 
pastor in Zurich, who entertained individualistic 
ideas on religion and advocated the so-called science 



138 GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 



of physiognomy. At first Goethe was inclined to 
share Lavater's hallucinations, but in time the lat- 
ter's religious sentimentality became repugnant to 
him. Another friend who influenced Goethe was 
F. H. Jacobi, of Diisseldorf, a more congenial but 
less brilliant man than Lavater. He was imbued 
with the spirit of Wertherism and succeeded in di- 
recting Goethe's attention to Spinoza's philosophy. 
The beginning of the year 1775 finds the poet again 
involved in a love affair with Lili Schonemann, the 
daughter of a rich banker in Frankfort. Her girlish 
naivete and coquettishness beguiled him into her 
snares, and an engagement, which was afterward 
broken, resulted. A trip to Switzerland with the two 
brothers Stolberg cured him of the idea that he could 
not exist without Lili. Many of his most beautiful 
lyrics were called forth by this attachment and evince 
his strong passion and self-control. 

The rapidly increasing fame of the young author 
attracted the attention of Duke Karl August of 
Weimar, a man of literary tastes, who invited him to 
spend a few weeks at his court. Goethe was so well 
pleased with his reception that he decided to take up 
his residence there in 1775, and soon became the 
bosom friend of the duke and later his prime min- 
ister, a position which he held until within a few 
years of his death. In the interval between his re- 
turn from Strassburg and his removal to Weimar, 
Goethe produced the dramatic satires Gotter, Helden 



THE PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 139 



und Wieland, Hanswursts Hochzeit, Pater Brey, 
Satyros, and Das Jahrmarktsjest zu Plunder sweilern. 
Two burgher dramas, Clavigo (1774) and Stella 
(1776), after the style of Lessing's Emilia Galotii, 
and two "Singspiele," Erwin und Elmire (1775) and 
Claudine von Villa Bella (1776), also appeared. The 
tragedies Sokrates and Mahomet , the one philosoph- 
ical in character, and the other religious, the epic 
Der ewige Jude and the drama Prometheus remain 
as fragments of this period. Shortly after Goethe's 
arrival in Weimar he met Charlotte von Stein, the 
first lady of noble birth with whom he became in- 
timately acquainted. Though she was seven years 
older than he, and the mother of seven children, an 
intimacy developed between them which lasted until 
1786, and produced a long series of "the most beauti- 
ful love letters that ever flowed from the pen of man." 
She, of all the women whom he loved, influenced him 
most, and taught him self-control and resignation. 
This first decade of Weimar life was productive of the 
most beautiful lyrics Goethe has written, and reveal 
his happiness in his new love and his high apprecia- 
tion of nature. The Harzreise im Winter was made 
in 1777, and a second Swiss journey with the duke 
in 1779. Returning, they stopped at Stuttgart to 
visit the Karlsschule. where Schiller was a student. 
The next year appeared another "Singspiel," Jery 
und Bdtely, and that excellent poem Gesang der 
Geister iiber den Wassern. Plans for Egmont, Tasso, 



140 GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 

and Wilhelm Meister, and the completion of Iphige- 
nie date back to this period. In 1786, Goethe carried 
out his long-cherished plan of a journey to Italy, 
where he remained two years. Here his views of life 
were changed, his vision was enlarged and his ideals 
of art and poetry matured; Iphigenie was also re- 
written in its present form, Egmont was completed, 
and on the way home in 1788 he worked at Tasso 
which was finished in 1789. His experiences in 
Italy, gleaned from his letters and diaries at a later 
time, are to be found in the volume of his works under 
the title Italienische Reise (1786-88). Goethe was an 
entirely different man when he returned from Italy. 
He seemed estranged from his former friends, and 
did not wish to be burdened with any duties other 
than the supervision of the University of Jena and the 
Court Theater. 

Iphigenie auf Tauris 

This drama with its calm grandeur and smooth 
versification is almost faultless in artistic style. The 
material is borrowed from the Greek. But while 
the heroine of Euripides' tragedy is characterized 
by cunning and sagacity, which is the inheritance 
of her people, Goethe's Iphigenie is incapable of 
deceit; she is the representative of true woman- 
hood, the incorporation of moral strength. In the 
Greek tragedy the conflict can be solved only by 
the intervention of a deity; in the German all the 



THE PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 141 



difficulties are adjusted by the moral force of the 
heroine. 

The play was first written in prose in 1779 and re- 
written in its present form while the poet was in Italy 
in 1787. It was acted for the first time in the duke's 
private theater in Weimar and is considered the most 
psychological of all of Goethe's works. 

Act I. Iphigenie, the daughter of Agamemnon, had been 
carried to Tauris by the goddess Artemis, when her father was 
about to sacrifice her to appease the wrath of the gods. She has 
already spent many years far from her home. As priestess she is 
honored by the people, and has succeeded in revoking the old 
custom of human sacrifice, and yet she is not happy; she can not 
repress her longing for her home. " Weh' dem, der fern von Eltern 
und Geschwistern ein einsam Leben fiihrt." As she sadly wanders 
through the grove of the temple, Arkas, the intimate friend of 
King Thoas, comes to her and bids her prepare to meet his master, 
who intends to demand her hand in marriage. Iphigenie trusts to 
the good sense of the king and to her own powers of persuasion 
to avert the catastrophe, which would forever prevent her return 
to her people. She reveals to Thoas that she is of the accursed 
race of Tantalus; but the king persists in his demand. When she 
remains firm, Thoas declares that she shall remain priestess, but 
that from this time forth every stranger, who comes to the shores 
of Tauris must be sacrificed according to ancient custom. Two 
strangers who are concealed in the caverns on the shore are to be 
the first victims. 

Act II. The two strangers are Iphigenie's brother, Orestes, 
and his friend Pylades. Agamemnon has been slain by his wife, 
Klytemnestra, and Aegisthus; Orestes avenges his father's death 
by killing his mother and her paramour. To escape from the 
Furies who are pursuing him, he consults Apollo, who declares 
that the curse will be removed if Orestes can bring back to Greece 
his sister who tarries in Tauris against her will. The unfortunate 
man believes it to be Apollo's own sister whom he is to rescue 



142 GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 



from the barbarians, and he sets out in a ship with his friend 
Pylades. When they reach the inhospitable Scythian shore, and 
find themselves in great danger, Pylades is full of life and courage, 
and thinks only of their deliverance; Orestes is melancholy, and 
longs for death. Now for the first time since her miraculous rescue, 
Iphigenie meets a Greek, and it is but natural that the desire to 
hear from her loved ones is uppermost in her mind. They meet 
without recognizing one another, and Pylades tells her of the great 
events of the Trojan war, and of the tragic fate of her father. 

Act III. Orestes does not wish to deceive the priestess as did 
Pylades, who said they were the sons of the king of Crete, but re- 
veals himself to her, and confesses his guilt. Iphigenie now makes 
herself known to them. When Orestes learns that he is destined 
to die by her hand, he sinks overcome to the ground. Recovering 
from his swoon he believes himself in the lower world living in 
peace with his ancestors. Thus Iphigenie and Pylades find him. 
The climax of the drama is reached when the pure and sanctify- 
ing presence of his sister frees Orestes from the fetters of the curse, 
and the Furies leave him. It now remains for the three to make 
good their escape with the image of the goddess. 

Act IV. While Orestes and Pylades seek their companions on 
the shore, Iphigenie, according to Pylades' plan, is to inform the 
king that the temple has been desecrated by the presence of a 
matricide, and that the image of the goddess needs purification in 
the waves of the sea. They can then make their way to a vessel 
concealed on the coast and carry the image away. When Arkas 
calls Iphigenie to account for the delay in offering the sacrifice she 
takes refuge in deceit. But the consciousness of the twofold guilt 
of deceiving the king and stealing the image torments her pure 
soul, and even Pylades can not overcome her scruples. 

Act V. The conduct of the priestess and the prisoners arouses 
the suspicions of the Taurians, and Thoas commands Iphigenie 
to appear before him. Neither the king nor the priestess is an 
adept at misrepresentation. Even after having allowed herself 
to be persuaded by Pylades to deceive the king, Iphigenie can not 
at the critical moment tell him a lie. She confides in the great soul 
of the ruler who has been so kind to her, and tells him the whole 
truth, pleading that she may be allowed to return peaceably with 



THE PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 143 



her brother and his friend to her own home. Her confidence has 
not been misplaced; Thoas listens to the voice of humanity and 
grants her request. But at this moment the appearance of Orestes 
at the head of armed Greeks threatens to destroy all that Iphigenie 
has gained. Orestes, however, also has lofty ideals, and volun- 
tarily gives up the image, perceiving now that he has found the 
solution of the oracle in the rescue of his own sister. The king 
graciously permits them to depart, and extends his hand to Iph- 
igenie with a word of farewell. 

Egmont 

Goethe found in Count Egmont a hero like Gotz 
von Berlichingen. As Gotz was a representative of 
knighthood at the time of the Reformation, so Eg- 
mont is a true type of the Dutch nobility at the time 
when the fate of Flanders had reached a critical 
point. Although the poet's presentation is not al- 
ways true to history, he nevertheless depicts very 
clearly the persons and conditions of which Egmont 
is the center of attraction. Goethe began to write 
Egmont as early as 1775, but it was not completed 
until the summer of 1787. Like Gotz, it is written in 
prose. 

Act I. At a meeting of the archers in the city of Brussels the 
conversation centers on Count Egmont, the governor of Artois 
and Flanders, the victor of St. Quentin and Gravelingen. Al- 
though he does not himself appear in this act, we nevertheless be- 
come acquainted with his character. All agree that he is generous, 
open-hearted, and brave; all feel oppressed by the Spanish rule, 
and especially by the Spanish Inquisition, and see in Egmont their 
natural protector. The picture of the hero is made complete by 
the interview which the regent of the Netherlands, Margarete von 
Parma, sister of King Philip II., has in her palace with her private 



144 GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 



secretary, Machiavell. She discovers in Egmont's popularity the 
greatest danger to her rule, for the people notice the difference 
between his cheerful, indifferent conduct, and the severity of 
Philip's government. She is also personally offended by the in- 
dependent attitude of the count, who acts as if he were not a sub- 
ject of the king, but were himself lord of the Netherlands. And 
yet she is obliged to admit that he is conscientious in everything, 
and that he has never concealed his ambition. 

Act II. Egmont's conduct confirms the opinion which the 
people and the court have of him. The manner in which he calms 
the citizens who have been aroused by Secretary Vansen shows 
how much the people love him. A letter from a well-meaning 
friend, who warns him to be more careful, leads him to a self- 
examination which unveils his innermost heart; he believes that 
the hope of the enjoyment of life makes life worth living; he is 
ambitious to be more than he is, but does not wish to weigh care- 
fully the importance of every step. He pays no attention to the 
warnings of his friend, William of Orange, whose character is 
just the opposite of his own. Silent and cautious, Orange seeks to 
know the opinion of others, and to discover the plans of his en- 
emies in order to defeat them. He has learned that the blood- 
thirsty Duke of Alba is coming to the Netherlands with an army, 
and he is convinced that Margarete will abdicate rather than 
maintain a semblance of the power which is actually in the hands 
of another. He therefore decides to leave Brussels, never to re- 
turn as long as Alba continues to rule. Egmont can not under- 
stand such conduct; he trusts in his own right, in the justice of the 
king, and in the wisdom of the imperial councilors. Consequently 
Orange can not persuade him to flee from the threatened danger. 

Act III. What Orange surmised now becomes a reality; Mar- 
garete secretly leaves Brussels. While the heavy clouds are col- 
lecting over Egmont's head he spends his days in unconcern. 
Klarchen, his little sweetheart, almost worships him, and the last 
cloud which his friend's departure has brought over him disap- 
pears in her presence. 

Act rV. The king has sent Alba into the provinces not only to 
restore order temporarily, but also to deprive the individual states 
of their liberty, and thus once for all to destroy the opposition. 



THE PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 145 



Alba is the very man to carry out this plan. He knows not the 
enjoyments of life; accustomed from his youth up to obey and to 
command, he does not understand the need of individual liberty. 
He steadfastly goes about his work, and resolves first of all to cap- 
ture the leading nobles, especially Egmont and Orange, and render 
them forever harmless. Under pretense of seeking their advice 
he invites them to his castle. Orange sends a letter from Antwerp 
in which he excuses his absence, but Egmont unsuspectingly goes 
into the trap which is set for him; upon a spirited horse, as if he 
were going to a great feast, he gallops into the courtyard, and with 
a feeling of quiet security enters the room. When he learns that 
the people are to be deprived of their freedom he declares that 
they would rather die than be robbed of their rights. Express- 
ing the hope that all may yet be well, Egmont seeks to take his 
leave, but the gallery is occupied by guards and he is obliged to 
surrender. 

Act V. When Klarchen hears what has happened, she hastens 
in the twilight through the streets of Brussels, accompanied by 
her faithful yet hopeless lover, Brackenburg, to arouse the citizens 
to free Egmont. But no one has the courage to risk his life in the 
attempt, and crushed in spirit she returns to her home. Soon 
afterward Brackenburg informs her that a scaffold is being erected 
on the market place, and that Egmont, without doubt, will die 
on the following morning. Klarchen then takes poison. Mean- 
while the sentence of death is read to Egmont in the prison. At 
first he is filled with resentment at the injustice done him, for, as a 
Knight of the Golden Fleece, he can be condemned only by the 
Grand Master of that order, together with the assembled chapter 
of knights. When, however, Ferdinand, the young son of Alba, 
who is present when the verdict is read, reminds him of his 
earlier life, which the youth of the land have sought to imitate, his 
old heroism returns and he resolves that his death shall also be 
worthy of imitation. After Ferdinand has gone, a gentle slumber 
comes over the prisoner and a pleasant dream seems to bear his 
spirit away; the goddess of liberty, who has the features of Klar- 
chen, extends to him a laurel wreath, and announces to him that 
his death will secure freedom for the Netherlands. The dream 
still lingers after he has awakened. The drums which summon 
Ger. Stu. Man. — 10 



146 GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 



him to death seem to him the signal of victory, and as he advances 
through the guards he cries out: "Protect your homes! And to 
save those who are most dear to you, be ready to follow my ex- 
ample, and fall with joy!" 

Tasso 

This psychological drama, first written in prose 
1780-81, but rewritten in blank verse while the poet 
was in Italy, was published in 1790. Although want- 
ing in dramatic action, it is superior to Iphigenie 
in delicate poetic charm and fine delineation of char- 
acter. The life of Torquato Tasso, author of La 
Gerusalemme Liberata, who died in Rome in 1595, 
combined with Goethe's own experiences in Weimar, 
furnished the material for this work. 

Act I. Tasso comes to the court of the Duke Alphonso II., 
of Ferrara, where he expects to find time and inspiration to com- 
plete his poem, Jerusalem Delivered. He is encouraged in his 
work by his love for the duke's sister, Leonore von Este, and from 
her conversation with the Countess Leonore Sanvitale in the gar- 
den of the castle Belriguardo, we learn that she secretly returns 
his love. Notwithstanding the similarity of these two women in 
education and intellectual interests they differ greatly in character. 
The princess is tall and delicate, of reserved and melancholy dis- 
position, but always kind and unselfish; the countess, on the other 
hand, is small of stature, delights in the pleasures of life, and is not 
without deceit and selfishness; essentially a "lighter being," but 
one of the poet's most charming creations. The conversation of 
the two friends is interrupted by the entrance of the duke. He is 
seeking Tasso, who, he believes, spends too much time in seclu- 
sion. When the duke invited him to his court he doubtless thought 
only of the fame of his house, and he still believes that the world 
will be indebted to Ferrara for this noble work. He is, neverthe- 
less, generous enough to consider the welfare of his protege, and 



THE PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 147 



when he urges him to finish the poem, he does so in order to intro- 
duce him as soon as possible to the world, so that he may develop 
his character. , Tasso lacks the qualities which would enable him 
to live and work before the public; he is suspicious and excitable, 
sensitive and passionate, and his idealism can not adjust itself to 
the stern realities of life. Thus we find him when he has com- 
pleted his work, and modestly comes to present it to the duke. 
When the princess, at the wish of the duke, takes a laurel wreath 
from the bust of Virgil and places it upon Tasso's head, he im- 
agines himself in Elysium, at the side of Homer and the heroes of 
antiquity, but he is soon to realize that he is yet in the world of 
realities. Antonio, the Secretary of State, has just returned from 
Rome, and informs the duke of the successful turn in his affairs. 
The honor conferred upon the inexperienced poet displeases the 
shrewd, practical statesman, arouses his jealousy, and a quarrel 
between the two men so differently constituted is inevitable. 

Act II. Tasso, deeply wounded by Antonio's disparaging 
remarks, is consoled by the princess, who confesses that she is 
pleased with his verses, but demands of him moderation and re- 
nunciation. At her desire he seeks a reconciliation with Antonio 
and impetuously offers him his friendship, which the man of the 
world coldly rejects. The breach continues to widen until Tasso, 
bitterly offended, draws his sword. Just then the duke appears, 
and mildly punishes the poet by banishing him to his room for an 
indefinite period. He also censures Antonio, who, as the more 
experienced man, should have exercised greater indulgence, and 
subsequently commands him to become reconciled with the poet, 
and to give him his liberty. 

Act III. In this act Tasso remains in the background, and 
the intrigue of Countess Sanvitale is disclosed. She proposes as 
the best solution of the trouble that Tasso should leave Ferrara 
for a while, and accompany her to Florence, where she hopes to 
captivate him and make him an ornament for herself. This plan 
does not find favor with the princess, who wishes to keep Tasso 
near her, nor with Antonio, who would not have it seem that he is 
the cause of the poet's departure. 

Act IV. Tasso's morbid condition of mind develops into the 
delusion that all his former friends are plotting to get him out 



148 GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 



of Ferrara, and he becomes unjust and deceitful. In compliance 
with the duke's command Antonio seeks to make his peace with 
Tasso, and bids him put his friendship to the test. Tasso requests 
Antonio to obtain the duke's permission for him to leave Ferrara 
that he may go to Rome, and there, with the help of his friends, 
give his poem the finishing touches. Antonio tries to persuade him 
to remain, but at last reluctantly consents to speak to the duke. 

Act V. The duke very unwillingly gives his consent, and bids 
the poet a cordial farewell, expressing the hope that he will soon 
return. The appearance of the princess dispels Tasso's suspicions, 
and he is conscious only of the approaching separation. When 
she speaks kindly to him, and reproaches him for wishing to leave 
his friends, his strength utterly forsakes him, and unmindful of 
the entrance of the duke and Antonio, he makes a frenzied decla- 
ration of love and presses the princess to his bosom. Throwing 
him from her she hastily retires. By this presumptuous act Tasso 
himself inevitably severs the tie that binds him to the court. For- 
saken on every side he finds in Antonio at last a noble friend and 
comforter. 

To the year 1790 belong Faust, ein Fragment, and 
the V eneiianischen E pi gramme, which were followed 
in 1794 by a translation of the Loav German beast 
Epic Reineke Fuchs and the Romischen Elegien in 
1795. Goethe was also to taste life on the battlefield, 
and accompanied the duke in the campaign against 
the French, an account of which he gives in Campagne 
in Frankreich, 1792, but not published until 1822. 
His intimate acquaintance with Schiller was a notable 
factor in the great poet's life. Notwithstanding the 
failure of the previous attempts to bring the two 
gifted men together, a meeting in Jena during the 
summer of 1 794 was more successful. From now on 
they became fast friends and were mutually helpful. 



THE PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 149 



Goethe became a contributor to Schiller's magazines, 
Die Horen and Miisenalmanach, exchanged ideas 
and literary plans, and assisted in the publication of 
short satirical thrusts at their enemies, called Xenien. 
This friendship continued until the death of Schiller 
in 1805. Goethe's romance Wilhelm Meisters Lehr- 
jahre, which consists of six books, appeared in 1795- 
96, and was the pioneer of the autobiographical Ger- 
man novel. It relates the experiences of a young 
man who, contrary to the wishes of his father, be- 
comes an actor, joins a theatrical troupe, and then 
finds that he has missed his calling. This romance, 
which includes some beautiful poems like Mignon, 
and the work Bekenntnisse einer schdnen Seele, shows 
Goethe's enlarged views of life and depicts the state 
of German society of that age. 

After the rupture with Frau von Stein Goethe 
transferred his affections to Christiane Vulpius, an 
attractive, intelligent, and affectionate girl, whom he 
took into his house as his mistress, but whom he did 
not marry until 1806. This love affair caused consid- 
erable scandal in Weimar society and made Goethe 
many enemies. In the year 1797 Goethe vied with 
Schiller in writing ballads for the Miisenalmanach, 
and in the next year Hermann und Dorothea ap- 
peared. 

Hermann und Dorothea 
This poem, which is composed of nine cantos, each 
of which bears the name of a muse, is one of Goethe's 



150 GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 



best productions, and may be styled an epic-idyl. 
Goethe found his material in the story of the fugitive 
Protestants whom the Archbishop of Salzburg ex- 
pelled from his territory in 1731; but the poet trans- 
ferred the time of action to his own age, and in place 
of the Salzburg exiles he presents to us German emi- 
grants who have been driven from their homes by 
marauding French soldiers. It is written in hexam- 
eters, the characters are few and clearly drawn, and 
the whole is characterized by simplicity of style and 
subject. It gives us a beautiful picture of simple 
domestic life in a small German town, interwoven 
with events arising from the French Revolution. Its 
patriotic spirit appealed to the public and it soon 
gained a wide popularity. 

The scene of this charming epic is thought by some to be Pdss- 
neck in Thuringia, by others, some village along the Rhine. The 
streets seem deserted, for most of the inhabitants have gone out to 
the chaussee to see the arriving emigrants. Hermann, the son of 
the host of the "Golden Lion," has also driven out to bring the 
fugitives food and linen. His parents are anxiously awaiting his 
return at the doorway of their house. His father, though grieved 
by the story of want and distress, comforts himself with the thought 
of his own prosperity; his mother is a typical German housewife 
and is tactful in adjusting the differences which often arise be- 
tween father and son. They have not waited long when some of 
the villagers, including the loquacious apothecary and the noble 
pastor, return covered with dust, and relate their experiences. 
When Hermann comes home, he tells how he overtook a brave 
young maiden guiding an ox cart in which lay a woman with her 
newborn babe; and how he gave her the food and clothing his 
mother had sent, believing that she would distribute them wisely 
among the sick and needy. Hermann is tall and well grown, 



THE PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 151 



modest and respectful in manner, but lacking in ambition and 
enterprise, and too diffident to please his father, who wishes him 
to court their rich neighbor's daughter. The pastor remarks that 
he has never seen Hermann so cheerful before; for the quiet, re- 
served youth, accustomed only to obey, has suddenly developed 
firmness and determination of character, and seems no longer un- 
willing to think of marriage. When the wary and timid apothecary 
congratulates himself that he has no family for which to provide 
in these troublous days, Hermann earnestly protests, and says that 
many a good maiden needs a husband now to protect her. His 
father warns him that he will accept none but a rich maiden as a 
daughter; this comes as a blow to the young man, and he leaves 
the room, followed by his kind mother, to whom he confides that 
he loves the emigrant girl and is determined to make her his 
wife. The mother returns and informs her husband and his 
friends of Hermann's determination to marry the exiled maiden. 
The pastor takes his part, but the more cautious apothecary sug- 
gests that inquiries should first be made about Dorothea. The 
father reluctantly gives his consent, and the pastor and the apothe- 
cary, accompanied by Hermann, go to the neighboring village 
where the emigrants are stopping, to learn what reputation the 
maiden bears among her own people. Hermann's good opinion 
of the girl is confirmed. The character of this capable, self-denying 
maiden has been developed by sad experiences, since both her 
parents and her lover have been taken from her by death. Her- 
mann meets her at the well, where she has come to draw water, 
but he can not bring himself to speak to her of love; he tells her 
instead that his mother is in need of a strong, reliable maiden to 
help her in the house. The homeless girl, believing herself en- 
gaged as a servant, bids her friends farewell, and gladly accom- 
panies Hermann to his home. Before he has time, however, to 
explain his conduct, the father, believing that she knows all, of- 
fends her by expressing his admiration of her beauty, and his 
approval of his son's choice. She thus feels herself placed in a 
false position, and resolves to leave the house at once. But the 
wise pastor adroitly makes use of this opportunity to win from the 
maiden the confession that her feeling for the excellent young man 
is deeper than gratitude, and that she has secretly hoped that 



152 GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 



she may some day be deemed worthy of becoming his bride; but 
she now realizes that the difference between the rich youth and 
the poor exile is indeed too great, and she begs to be allowed to 
return to her people. When Hermann hears this he no longer con- 
ceals his feelings; Dorothea is made acquainted with the real posi- 
tion she is expected to fill in the household, and a betrothal follows. 
The charming maiden pays a beautiful tribute to the memory of 
her former lover, and the poem concludes, as it opened, with a 
reference to national events. 

During the next ten years Goethe's activity was 
limited to a few "Festspiele," like Was wir bringen 
and Paldophron und Neoterpe, the historical tragedy 
Die Natiirliche Tochter, writings on art, and a few 
minor works like Der Gross-Cophta, Der Biirger- 
general, and Pandora. 

How deeply Goethe was moved by the death of 
Schiller may be learned from his magnificent Epilog 
zu Schiller s Glocke. After a vain attempt to com- 
plete his friend's unfinished tragedy Demetrius, his 
muse slumbered for some time, and all literary efforts 
seemed suspended until 1808, when the First Part of 
Faust was published. 

The popularity of Faust stimulated Goethe to re- 
newed endeavors, and in 1809 Die Wahlverwandt- 
schaften, the first important work in the last period 
of the poet's life, appeared. Reflections on his love 
for Minna Herzlieb of Jena furnished the theme for 
this psychological novel, which treats of the moral 
problems of marriage. Although sixty years of age, 
Goethe's genius had not declined, of which vivacious 



THE PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 153 



drinking songs and ballads like Johanna Sebus and 
Der getreue Eckart give evidence. As in his earlier 
years, so now in 18 10 he showed his scientific turn of 
mind by writing the Farbenlehre and Zur Morpholo- 
gic. In the following year he published the first 
volume of his autobiography under the title Aus 
meinem Leben: Dichtung und Wahrheit; the second 
and third volumes were finished by the end of 
1814, but the fourth did not appear until after his 
death. 

During the last years of his life Goethe withdrew 
more and more from active public life, and he was 
not at all interested in the War of Liberation. But 
when the victory was won he rejoiced with his people 
in the new spirit which seemed to animate the na- 
tional consciousness, and then wrote Des Epimenides 
Erwachen in 1814. About this time a translation of 
the Persian poet Hafis fell into Goethe's hands and 
he took up the study of oriental poetry. The result 
of this study was a collection of love songs inspired by 
his love for Marianne von Willemer, and published 
in the year 1819 under the title Der Westdstliche Di- 
van. These lyrics betray the effects of approaching 
age and are more reflective than his earlier poems. 
Wilhelm Meisters Wanderjahre, a part of which ap- 
peared in 1 82 1, but which was not completed until 
1829, is not comparable as a piece of fiction with the 
Lehrjahre. It deals with similar social problems, 
but the individual no longer tries to assert himself 



154 GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 



against society; he seeks rather to adjust himself to 
his environment and to make himself useful. 

The last years of the poet's life are full of interest- 
ing experiences. He sought to keep himself abreast 
of the time and did not allow old age to rob him of 
his vitality and usefulness. He realized that the age 
was changing and that he must adapt himself to it. 
Among the frequent visitors at the court was Bettina 
Brentano, with whom Goethe became intimately 
acquainted in the Werther days, and who wrote 
Goethes Briefwechsel mit einem Kinde. Napoleon, 
Beethoven, Scott. Byron, Carlyle, Eckermann, von 
Humboldt, and a host of other friends cheered him 
by expressions of admiration and appreciation. Wie- 
land died in 1813, and in 181 6 Goethe was grieved 
by the loss of his wife ; the following year he gave 
up the directorship of the theater, the duties of 
which had become too burdensome for him. But he 
was not yet too old to love, for even in his seventy- 
fourth year he became passionately fond of Ulrike 
von Levetzow, a girl of nineteen, whom he met at 
Marienbad in the summer of 1822. The beauti- 
ful Marienbader Elegie and the Trilogie der Leiden- 
schajt remain as tokens of this love and consequent 
suffering. Meanwhile his sorrows were multiplied 
by the death of many of his old friends, among them 
Charlotte von Stein in 1827, and in the following year 
Duke Karl August. To assuage his grief and to take 
his thoughts away from these losses, the old man 



THE PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 155 



retired to the pleasant castle of Dornburg on the 
Saale near Jena, where he finished the Wander jahre 
in its present form, worked at the Second Part of 
Faust, and revised his scientific writings. In his 
eighty-first year another great affliction smote him 
in the death of his only son August, who on account 
of ill health had gone to Italy, where he died in 
Rome in 1830. His widow, Ottilie von Goethe, did 
much to make the last days of the sorrowing father 
pleasant, and became his favorite. A trip to the 
Kickelhahn near Ilmenau, where he had spent so 
many happy days with Karl August, seemed to give 
him health and vigor. Here, with tears in his eyes, 
he read the lines which he had written on the wall of 
a hut many years before : 

" Uber alien Gipfeln 
1st Ruh, 
In alien Wipfeln 
Spiirest du 
Kaura einen Hauch; 
Die Voglein schweigen im Walde. 
Warte nur, balde 
Ruhest du auch." 

The expected rest came on the 2 2d of March, 
1832. His last words were, "Licht, mehr Licht!" 
Thus the grandest poet of German literature passed 
away and closed the greatest era of poetic achieve- 
ment in Germany. He was laid to rest in the ducal 
vault at Weimar near his two friends Schiller and 
Karl August who had preceded him. 



156 GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 



Faust 

Faust is Goethe's greatest work and extends over 
a period of sixty, years. The inception reaches back 
to the epoch of Gotz von Berlichingen, to a time when 
the poet regarded all restraints in art and life as 
troublesome fetters, and justified only the flights of 
genius; the conclusion of the drama falls in the sum- 
mer of 1 83 1, only a few months before the poet's 
death. The work was suggested by the legend of 
Dr. Faustus, who, as he was represented in the come- 
dies of the sixteenth century, was to the youthful 
poet the embodiment of the Spirit of the Time, who 
strove to free himself from every restriction; to the 
aged poet, however, Faust was the symbol of striv- 
ing humanity. Goethe's life is so interwoven with 
the tragedy that it may be considered a commentary 
on the work. The First Part manifests Goethe's vast 
knowledge of human thought and affairs, and the 
final success of an erring seeker after truth. 

FIRST PART 

This drama is introduced by three prologues. The 
first is a Zueignung, which links the tragedy with the 
poet's youth; this is followed by the V or spiel auj 
dem Theater, called by Vischer " a humorous letter of 
apology," and by the Prolog im Himmel, in which the 
spectator is borne "vom Himmel durch die Welt zur 
Holle." The latter is modeled on the opening scene 
in the Book of Job, and is the key to the drama. 



THE PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 157 



In the first scene we see Faust, an old professor, in a high-vaulted 
Gothic chamber, weary of study and disgusted with the vanity of 
knowledge, longing for more freedom and power. He, therefore, 
turns to magic and summons the spirits to his aid; but when the 
Earth Spirit says, "Thou'rt like the spirit, thou dost comprehend, 
not me!" and the spell is interrupted by a visit from Wagner, his 
" famulus," a "dry-as-dust" pedant, he is very much discouraged, 
and is about to put a vial of poison to his lips, when he hears the 
sound of the Easter bells and a chorus chanting "Christ is risen!" 
This revives a flood of tender recollections of his childhood, and 
with tears in his eyes he resolves to live. 

The next scene is before the city gate on Easter day; students, 
soldiers, beggars, servant maids, and promenaders of every sort 
pass out; Faust and Wagner join the motley crowd and walk into 
the fields, where the "famulus" is greatly impressed with the at- 
tention paid the "doctor," but "all this skittle-playing, fiddling, 
and singing" of the peasants under the linden tree is detestable to 
him. At sunset they view the landscape, and Faust longs to follow 
the course of the sun, "his quenchless light to drink, the day be- 
fore me, and behind the night." A poodle follows them home 
from the fields and reveals himself as Mephistopheles, — the Spirit 
who evermore denies, — in the guise of a traveling scholar. After 
Mephistopheles has offered Faust his services he calls his spirits 
to lull Faust to sleep. 

We now come to the magnificent scene in which Faust signs the 
compact with his own blood; Mephistopheles says: 

"I'll pledge myself to be thy servant here, 
Still at thy back alert and prompt to be; 
But when together yonder we appear, 
Then shalt thou do the same for me." 

Faust agrees to this on the condition that Mephistopheles shall 
so satisfy his soul with the pleasures of life that he can say to the 
passing moment, "Linger awhile, so fair thou art." While Faust 
is preparing for his new life, Mephistopheles, disguised as a pro- 
fessor, gives some evil advice to a student, who listens submis- 
sively and then begs him to write a few lines in his album as a 



158 GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 



token of his favor. Mephistopheles writes these words: "Eritis 
sicut Deus, scientes bonum et malum," and the guileless student 
departs well satisfied. 

Faust is now introduced to a number of jovial students who are 
drinking, singing, and quarreling in Auerbach's wine cellar in 
Leipzig, but he is disgusted with the scene. He is not yet prepared 
to enjoy such buffoonery, and Mephistopheles takes him to the 
Witches' Kitchen. Here he drinks a magic potion to restore his 
youthful vigor, and sees in a mirror the form of a beautiful maiden. 
Now the old, gray-haired professor is changed into a handsome 
and passionate youth, and the Gretchen tragedy begins. 

Margaret first appears on the scene as she comes from the church 
and repulses Faust when he seeks to escort her home. Not dis- 
couraged at this, Faust and his companion succeed in placing a 
casket of jewels in Margaret's room. When Faust learns that 
Margaret's mother has given the gems to a priest, he begs Meph- 
istopheles to "bring fresh jewels instantly." These she does not 
show to her mother, but carries them to Martha, a wicked neigh- 
bor, who with Mephistopheles arranges a meeting with Faust and 
Margaret in her garden. Here Margaret innocently tells Faust 
the story of her life, and they soon fall in love, while Martha en- 
tertains Mephistopheles with a marriage proposition. Enticed 
thus by the devil, Faust and Margaret succumb to his wiles. With- 
drawing to a cavern in the forest, Faust spends his time in con- 
templation, until Mephistopheles comes and chides him for neg- 
lecting Margaret, who is continually longing for him. Meanwhile 
Margaret spends her time in loneliness and spins as she sings: 

"My heart is heavy, my peace is o'er; 
I shall find it never; oh, never more!'' 

The lovers meet again in the garden and Margaret, with child- 
like simplicity, is now made the unconscious instrument of her 
mother's death. Margaret then questions Faust about his religion. 
Subsequent scenes represent Margaret at the well, and before the 
Mater Dolorosa, where her own sins appear to her blacker than 
before, and she prays to be delivered from disgrace and death. 
Valentine, her soldier-brother, hears of her shame and returns 



THE PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 159 



home only to fall at the hands of Margaret's betrayer. There is 
now no peace for the poor girl, for even in the Cathedral she is 
pursued by the Evil Spirit, and the deep tones of the organ and the 
words of the chorus seem to condemn her. Soon afterwards she 
is arrested and imprisoned for infanticide. While she is pining in 
the dungeon, Mephistopheles makes a final attempt to distract 
Faust by leading him to the Brocken on " Walpurgisnacht," but 
not even the brilliant and exciting scenes of the witches' carnival 
can make him forget Margaret. Driven almost to madness Faust 
commands Mephistopheles to save her. The final scene of the 
tragedy pictures Margaret and Faust in the dungeon to which 
Faust has come before daybreak to save her from the hands of the 
executioner, but her mind has been so affected by the terrible 
strain that she does not recognize her lover, and thinking it is the 
headsman she hides her head in a bed of straw. But when he calls 
her by name she knows his voice and embraces and caresses him. 
"While she recalls her past and expresses a wish concerning the 
final disposition of her body, Faust continues to urge her to flee 
with him; but at the appearance of Mephistopheles, she shrinks 
back in horror and can not be persuaded to leave the prison. 
Mephistopheles sees that he has failed in his purpose, and scorn- 
fully cries out, "She is judged!" but voices from above reply, 
"She is saved!" As Faust is hurried away by his companion, 
Margaret's pleading voice is heard faintly calling, "Henry! 
Henry!" 

SECOND PART 

The Second Part represents Faust's experiences 
in the "Greater World," which encompasses all the 
influences and activities of man, and offers an op- 
portunity to atone for sin by useful service. It is 
often obscure and unintelligible, and admits only of 
symbolic interpretation, but the true spirit of altruism 
is clearly discernible throughout. We must suppose 
that considerable time has elapsed between the two 



160 GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 



parts of the tragedy. The scenes up to the fourth 
act "shift from land to land, as in a phantasmagoria." 

The first scene pictures Faust reclining upon a flowery turf, 
seeking sleep, and surrounded by a circle of spirits. When he 
awakens a beautiful sunrise in the Alps greets him, and having 
forgotten the past, and feeling refreshed, he starts out with Meph- 
istopheles to make himself useful in the world. They first ap- 
pear at the court of an emperor, whom they help out of financial 
troubles. Here Faust gives an exhibition of his art, and summons 
the shades of Paris and Helen from Hades. Helen is so beautiful 
that Faust falls in love with her and desires to possess her, but as 
he attempts to embrace her she vanishes. 

In the second act Faust and Wagner are together in the study 
as of old; Faust sleeps, while Wagner is creating a homunculus. 
To cure Faust of his passion for Helen, Mephistopheles and Ho- 
munculus carry him away to the classical Walpurgis Night. Not 
finding her here he descends into Hades in search of her. 

The third act opens with Helen's return from Troy. She fears 
that Menelaus, believing her guilty of infidelity, is planning to 
sacrifice her to the gods. Mephistopheles offers to deliver her, and 
she is transported to Faust's Arcadian castle, where they are mar- 
ried. A son, Euphorion, is born to thern, who, defying all re- 
straints, attempts to fly, and "falls dead at the feet of his parents." 
His spirit vanishes and draws his mother after him. Faust tries to 
hold her, but only her garments remain, and these soon turn into 
clouds and bear him away. 

In the next act we find Faust on a mountain top in Germany. 
Mephistopheles begins to realize that Faust is growing away from 
him, and tries to lure him with promises of earthly power and po- 
litical aggrandizement. Thinking that political life will afford him 
an opportunity for doing good, Faust aids in quelling a rebellion 
against the emperor. As a reward the emperor gives him a large 
tract of marshy land which he drains and prepares for human 
habitation and industries. 

In the last act Faust is a hundred years old, physically strong, 
and active in intellect, but still unsatisfied; the moment has not 
yet come to which he can say, "Linger awhile, so fair thou art!" 



THE PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 161 



Wherever he seeks to do good, Mephistopheles and his spirits 
mingle evil with it. After the burning of the cottage of the two 
peasants, Faust is visited at his castle by four gray women, — 
Want, Guilt, Care, and Need; Faust closes his door, and only 
Care steals in through the keyhole, but although she strikes him 
with blindness, she can not overcome him. Death now appears, 
but Faust does not see him; he still strives on unselfishly to pro- 
vide homes for men. As he comes forth from his palace groping 
his way, the clang of spades delights his soul; he thinks his vassals 
are carrying on his work, but they are the Lemures digging his 
grave. Having now accomplished his purpose and reached the 
moment of highest enjoyment, Faust sinks upon the soil which he 
has reclaimed, and dies with the anticipation of future happiness. 
Mephistopheles and his hosts now contend with the angels for the 
soul of Faust and are defeated; strewing roses, and rising higher 
as they bear the immortal part of Faust away, the angels sing: 

"Saved is this noble soul from ill, 
Our spirit peer. Whoever 
Strives forward with unswerving will, — 
Him can we aye deliver." 



Ger. Stu. Man. — n 



THE PERIOD OF TRANSITION 



The German Empire suffered greatly at the be- 
ginning of the nineteenth century by the victorious 
invasion of Napoleon, against whom no united and 
powerful resistance was made. But when the French 
became more and more the oppressors of the Ger- 
mans, the princes as well as their subjects united to 
overthrow their powerful enemy. More than fifty 
years were necessary to restore a proper adjustment 
of the political affairs of the different states. German 
literature in the first half of the century bears no in- 
dividual stamp. In part it reflects the movement 
called forth by the political struggles, but for the 
most part it reverted from subjects of public interest 
and followed the classical movement inaugurated by 
Schiller and Goethe, or else was limited to provincial 
and dialectic poetry. 

In the transition from the classicism of the eight- 
eenth century to the romanticism of the nineteenth 
we find a truly great writer in Jean Paul Richter 
(1763-182 5). In him we find the harmonious in- 
dividual so earnestly sought in classic German lit- 
erature. With the two dramatists IfHand and Kotze- 
bue, the former of whom stood in close relation to 
Schiller, while the latter made himself a reputation 
162 



THE PERIOD OF TRANSITION 163 

as the enemy of Goethe, stands Jean Paul, who 
helped make Weimar famous. He is characterized 
by a strong imagination, incoherent sentences, sud- 
den changes from jest to earnest, and the numerous 
long ramifications in his narratives. His humor and 
sentimentality enabled him to picture landscapes in 
the most fantastic colors, and to criticise severely the 
society of his day and the weakness of the smaller 
German states. The most important of his romances 
are Titan and Flegeljahre. Among his purely hu- 
morous writings, Dr. Katzenbergers Badereise is per- 
haps the best. Because of his eccentric and intricate 
style and language his works are seldom translated 
or read. 

Romanticism 
At the close of the eighteenth century all branches 
of culture received attention. The classical spirit 
had been reinstated in German literature; but the 
forces which had been active in the "Sturm und 
Drang" again manifested themselves, and produced 
a revolt against classicism, known as Romanticism. 
The writers of the Early Romantic School were 
subjective, bound by no rules, and allowed the imagi- 
nation full sway. Their aim was to revive mediaeval 
chivalry and romance, to reproduce fantastic myths, 
and to animate anew the patriotic feeling of the na- 
tion. The movement influenced all the sciences, re- 
ligion, and poetry, and made prominent such men 
as Schleiermacher and the brothers Jacob and 



164 GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 



Wilhelm Grimm. The former is known by his re- 
ligious writings, and the Grimms by their Kinder- 
und Hausmarchen, and their unfinished German 
dictionary. 

The real soul of the new tendency was Fried- 
rich Schlegel (i 772-1829), who, after teaching at 
various universities, finally settled in Vienna as a 
member of the Austrian chancery. He is notable 
for his studies in philosophy and aesthetics, for his 
histories of ancient and modern literature, and for 
bringing the ideas of romanticism into a more in- 
tellectual form. His most valuable work is a treatise, 
Uber die Sprache und Weisheit der Indier. His 
brother, August Wilhelm Schlegel (1 767-1845), 
gave free vent to his inclinations. He served as 
professor at Jena a few years, then accompanied 
Madame de Stael to Italy, Denmark, and Sweden, 
and finally became a professor at the University of 
Bonn. He won his reputation by his translations 
from Dante, Calderon, and Shakespeare, and was of 
greater literary importance than his brother. 

Ludwig Tieck (1 773-1853) was very popular at 
the beginning of the century as the author of several 
dramas in which he developed all the ideas of the 
Romantic School. Among his early stories we may 
mention William Lovell. His most important works 
are Kaiser Octavianus and Genoveva. Among the 
best of his fairy tales published in his book Phantasus 
are Der getreue Eckart, Die Elven, Der Blaubart, and 



THE PERIOD OF TRANSITION 165 

Rotkdppchen. While Tieck manifests great skill in 
depicting scenery, he nevertheless lacks depth and 
emotion. Contemporaneously with his Marchen ap- 
peared several satirical comedies like Der gestiejelte 
Kater, perhaps the best drama of this class in Ger- 
man literature, and the romance Franz Sternbalds 
WanderungeUj written in conjunction with W. H. 
Wackenroder. In 1819 Tieck was dramaturgist in 
Dresden, and later was called to Berlin by Freder- 
ick William IV., where he remained until his death. 
In this epoch of his life he wrote most of his novels. 
Together with A. W. Schlegel he was to translate 
Shakespeare, but he left his share of the work to 
be done by others, chiefly by his daughter. His 
ability as a translator is seen in his translation of 
Cervantes' romance Don Quixote. His poems are of 
little importance. 

Friedrich von Hardenberg, called Novalis 
(1772-1801), is as a poet more important than Tieck. 
His Hymnen an die Nacht, written in memory of his 
betrothed, reveal a tenderness and depth of feeling 
not to be found in Tieck. His life was short and 
therefore many of his other works were left un- 
finished. His Geistliche Lieder are good and are 
sung even to this day, but of the seven romances 
which he had planned to write, only the first part of 
one, Heinrich von Ojterdingen, modeled on Wilhelm 
Meister, was completed. He is considered the most 
talented poet of the Early Romantic School. 



166 GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 



Through the influence of Tieck and the Schlegel 
brothers a number of young men became interested 
in literary work and formed the Later School of Ro- 
manticism. They differed from the poets of the 
Early School in paying less attention to their theoret- 
ical views, and more to real work, and therefore were 
able to produce works of greater importance; but 
they imitated them in their fantastic ideas and choice 
of strange subjects. 

E. T. A. Hoffmann (1776-1822), one of the most 
gifted of the later Romanticists, exerted a wide and 
lasting influence. His artistic style and wonderful 
imaginative power enabled him to portray super- 
natural horrors in a remarkably realistic manner. 
Characteristic among his works are Nachtstucke, Die 
Serapionsbriider, and the fantastic romance Lebens- 
Ansichten des Katers Murr. 

Clemens Brentano (1 778-1842), wrote lyrics 
and novels, among which are Godwi, oder das stei- 
nerne Bild der Mutter, the charming Geschichte vom 
br avert Kasperl und der schdnen Annerl, and Das 
Marchen von Gockel, Hinkel und Gackeleia. Des 
Knaben Wunderhorn (1805-08), a collection of Ger- 
man Volkslieder, was published conjointly with Lud- 
wig Achim von Arnim (i 78 1 -i 83 1 ). The latter 
married Bettina, Brentano's sister, whose charming 
productions prove that she, too, was a writer of no 
little ability. 

Another follower of the Schlegels was Friedrich 



THE PERIOD OF TRANSITION 167 



Baron de la Motte Fouque (1 777-1843). Al- 
though of an ancient French family he served in the 
German army and then devoted himself to literature. 
His best work is Undine, a charming story of a 
water sprite who lives with a fisherman and his wife, 
and then becomes the bride of a knight, and is en- 
dowed with a soul. When called upon to suffer hu- 
man disappointment and sorrow she returns to her 
native element. The principal representatives of the 
drama of this romantic period are F. L. Zach arias 
Werner and Heinrich von Kleist; the former is 
almost forgotten to-day, but his fate tragedy, Der 
vierundzwanzigste Februar, introduced a series of 
"Schicksalstragodien," in imitation of Schiller's Die 
Braut von Messina. 

Heinrich von Kleist (1777-1811), one of the 
most original dramatists of North Germany, was 
inspired by the patriotic enthusiasm which brought 
forth the War of Liberation. He was of a morbid 
and fanciful disposition, but some of his works are re- 
markable for poetic feeling and real dramatic ability. 
Doomed to repeated disappointment, unhappy in 
love, discouraged by Goethe's harsh criticism, he 
committed suicide when he was only thirty-four years 
of age. In his tragedy Die Familie Schroffenstein he 
shows how two noble families, blinded by hatred and 
suspicion, can ruin each other. Das Kdtchen von 
Heilbronn, his most popular drama, presents a hero- 
ine whose character is possible only by the interven- 



1 68 GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 



tion of supernatural power. Der zerbrochene Krug is 
a bright little comedy giving a scene in a village court, 
in which the judge himself is discovered to be the 
culprit. Of Kleist's eight novels, Michael Kohlhaas 
is the best. Dreams and somnambulism play an 
important part in the drama Prinz Friedrich von 
Homburg. The last of his dramas, Die Hermanns- 
schlacht, treats of the Cheruscan prince Arminius, 
who drove the Romans out of Germany. This hero 
is held up to the petty German princes of Kleist's 
own time as a model in their efforts to throw off the 
French yoke. 

Chamisso, EichendorfT, and Muller, who resembled 
the Romanticists in general mode of thought, but 
excelled in the freshness of their style of presentation, 
belong to the most popular poets of the nineteenth 
century. 

Adelbert von Chamisso (i 781-1838), was a 
Frenchman by birth, who, when nine years of age, 
fled with his parents to Berlin, and later entered the 
German army. He was preeminently a lyric poet and 
knew well how to give expression to his moods and 
feelings. Das Schloss Boncourt expresses a lament 
for the home of his childhood, while the cycles of 
poems Frauen-Liebe und Leben and Lebenslieder und 
Bilder tell of the experiences of everyday life. Best 
of all is the poem Solas y Gomez, which describes 
the life of a shipwrecked man on a desert island in 
the ocean; in it we see the influences of the poet's 



THE PERIOD OF TRANSITION 169 



trip around the world. His story of Peter Schlemihl, 
the man who sold his shadow for an inexhaustible 
sum of money, and his excellent description of his 
travels rank him as a prose writer of considerable 
ability. 

The last distinguished Romanticist, Joseph Frei- 
herr von Eichendorff (1788-1857), studied in 
Breslau, Halle, and also in Heidelberg, where he 
came into touch with Brentano and Arnim, whom he 
assisted in the publication of the Wunderhorn. In- 
spired by his rare spirituality and love of home and 
nature, he was without doubt the greatest lyric poet 
of the Romantic Movement. His W anderlieder re- 
veal that national inclination to travel so characteris- 
tic of many of the earlier German poets, and are 
among the best of his collection of Gedichte. As a 
prose writer, Eichendorff is known only through his 
masterpiece, Aus dem Leben eines Taugenichts. This 
story is full of good humor and tells of a dreamy, 
buoyant young musician who starts out to see the 
world and falls in love with a supposed young count- 
ess; thinking that she is already betrothed he again 
wanders out into the world, and when he returns he 
finds she is still true to her " Taugenichts." 

Another master of the popular lyric is the North 
German Wilhelm Muller (1 794-1827), father of the 
celebrated philologist Max Muller. He wrote a few 
ballads and a few excellent drinking and love songs; 
of the former only Der Glockenguss zu Breslau has 



170 GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 



become popular. Among the latter are some of the 
choicest lyrics of the time, as Der Lindenbaum, Jdgers 
Lust, Das Wandern 1st des Mullers Lust, and his drink- 
ing song Lm Krug zum grilnen Kranze. The Lieder 
der Griechen, published near the close of his short 
and wayward life, are full of sentimental patriotism. 

Heinrich Zschokke (17 71-1848), was born in 
Magdeburg, and lived in Switzerland from the time 
he was twenty-five years of age. Besides Stunden 
der Andacht, which has become a household book 
in Switzerland, he wrote many stories, noteworthy 
among them being Das Goldmacherdorj, on the model 
of Pestalozzi's Lienhard und Gertrud, and the series 
of novels Bilder aus der Schweiz. 

Chief among the historical novelists who wrote 
under the influence of Scott, was the North German 
Wilhelm Haring (1798-1871), better known by the 
pseudonym Willibald Alexis, whose novels served 
to inspire patriotic feeling in Germany at a time of 
political unrest and national depression. Alexis was 
also a journalist of considerable reputation, but his 
fame now rests upon his series of historical novels, of 
which the best are Der Roland von Berlin, Der 
jalsche Waldemar, Die Ho sen des Herrn von Bredow, 
and Ruhe ist die erste Burger pflicht. 

Holderlin, Platen, and Riickert, — although in some 
respects resembling the Romanticists, — are masters 
of form, and show great skill in the use of the most 
difficult meters. 



THE PERIOD OF TRANSITION 171 



Friedrich Holderlin (1 770-1843), stood in 
closest relation to the Romanticists in that he sought 
to adjust the ideal to the real. He was a lover of 
classical antiquity, and wrote a romance, Hyperion, 
in which he describes in beautiful language the hopes 
and the disappointments of a young Greek who takes 
part in the struggle of his people against the Turks ; 
but it is as a lyric poet that we see him to the best 
advantage. He was greatly influenced by Schiller 
in his earliest writings. 

Karl Georg August, Graf von Platen-Hal- 
lermunde (1796-1835), was an aristocrat, and too 
self-confident and unpatriotic to win the sympathy 
of his people. Most of his life was spent in Italy and 
Greece. He was noted as a linguist, and his lyrical 
poems include several odes, hymns, and sonnets, 
which are among the best in the German language. 
Among his best ballads we find Das Grab im Busento 
and Der Pilgrim von St. Just. Platen makes use 
of fairy tales in his comedy Der gl'dserne Pantoffel, 
and in his epic Die Abbassiden, which relates the 
adventures of the sons of Harun-al-Raschid after 
the manner of Wieland's Oberon. In Die verhang- 
nissvolle Gabel, Platen satirizes the "Schicksalstrag- 
odie," while Der romantische Odipus is directed more 
against the plays of Immermann, and Romanticism 
in general. 

Friedrich Ruckert (1 788-1866), ranks next to 
Platen in the mastery of language and verse, but he 



172 GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 



lacked self-concentration and dramatic ability. He 
was in his early years a singer of the War of Libera- 
tion, and wrote Kriegerische Spott- und Ehrenlieder, 
and other war songs which greatly stirred the hearts 
of the German people. Some of his political poems, 
such as Barbarossa, Die drei Gesellen, and Die Graber 
zu Ottensen are still national favorites. Later in life 
he turned his attention to the study of the people and 
the literature of the Orient, which is best illustrated 
by his collection of poems Ostliche Rosen, and by 
a version of the Persian Rosteni und Suhrab. Riick- 
ert describes his own love and courtship in Liebes- 
jriihling, — a collection of about 350 poems, — and pre- 
sents his own ideas of philosophy in Die Weisheit des 
Brahmanen, a collection of poems in six volumes. 

The Poets of the War of Liberation 

The War of Liberation (1813-1815) marks a brief 
period in the history of German literature. The de- 
sire for liberty was awakened in the hearts of all the 
people and intense hatred of the French was every- 
where manifest. Among the younger poets not one 
could be found who would not willingly have used 
his poetical ability in the service of the Fatherland; 
Fouque, Schulze, EichendorfT, Muller, Riickert, 
Uhland, and many others contributed to stir the fire 
of patriotism. Arndt, Korner, and Schenkendorf 
animated and encouraged the people most by their 
patriotic and glowing war songs. 



THE PERIOD OF TRANSITION 173 



Ernst Moritz Arndt (1 769-1 860) wrote the 
best patriotic lyrics of this period. His poetry was 
inspired by the spirit of the Volkslied and the spirit- 
ual fervor which characterized the German revolt 
against Napoleon. Like Luther, he seemed like a 
religious reformer who knew how to arouse, animate, 
and foster a conviction of true patriotism and sin- 
cerity. With enthusiasm the Germans sang Der Gott, 
der Eisen wachsen liess, Was ist des Deutschen Vater- 
land? and Deutsches Herz, verzage nicht. His ballad- 
like songs such as Das Lied vom Schill and Die Leip- 
ziger Schlacht, as also his religious hymns, were 
scarcely less popular. 

Karl Theodor Korner (1791-1813) became a 
favorite with the German people more through his 
personality and his fate than through the merit of his 
productions. He learned much from his association 
with Schiller, whom his father had befriended in 
Leipzig and Dresden. When Frederick William III 
called for troops, Korner' s youthful patriotism was 
aroused and he joined Liitzow's cavalry as a volun- 
teer. During the five months of his service he wrote 
those charming songs which were later collected under 
the title Leier und Schwert. His most popular songs 
are Gebet wahrend der Schlacht, Liitzows wilde Jagd, 
and the Schwertlied, written just before his death. 
His dramas, which were written within one year, 
show a lack of maturity in experience and knowl- 
edge. His best drama is Zriny, which is taken from 



174 GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 



Hungarian history, and has been played not only in 
Austria and Germany, but also in America. 

Maximilian von Schenkendorf (i 783-181 7) 
resembled the Romanticists in his fondness for the 
I splendor of the Middle Ages. His lyrics are charac- 
terized by religious zeal and enthusiasm for the 
hoped-for revival of the empire. Although less ag- 
gressive than either Korner or Arndt, he neverthe- 
less was more thoughtful, and produced lyrics of a 
higher value. His patriotism is manifested in such 
songs as Landsturm, Das Lied vom Rhein, and in the 
poems Freiheit and M utter spr ache. Some of his pa- 
triotic songs were composed for special occasions, as 
Soldaten-Morgenlied, Auj Scharnhorsts Tod, and the 
ballad Andreas Hojer. His poems are full of sym- 
pathy and feeling and express the hope that the em- 
pire may be united and strong. 

The Swabian School; Austrian Writers 

The Swabian poets " carried the Romantic tradi- 
tions across the uninspired period of political journal- 
ism, which arose under 'Young Germany,' and kept 
the line unbroken between the leaders of Romanti- 
cism and masters like Storm and Keller in the follow- 
ing generation." But while the Romanticists sought 
their material in the fables of the Orient, or in the 
romances of the Middle Ages, these poets turned 
their attention to the rivers, woods, and mountains 
around them, and drew their inspiration from their 



THE PERIOD OF TRANSITION 175 



own beloved "Schwabenland." The leader of this 
circle was Ltjdwig Uhland (1 787-1862), who early 
showed great talent, and was destined for the legal 
profession, but later became professor in the Univer- 
sity of Tubingen. His life was an intermixture of 
political struggles, poetic activity, and educational 
service. He represents all that was best in later Ro- 
manticism, and found much to admire in the history 
of his own people. He revised, enlarged, and system- 
atically arranged the collection of folk songs which 
had been begun by Herder and continued by Arnim 
and Brentano. Uhland 's poetry has the merit of 
genuineness and bears the stamp of his own indi- 
viduality. He excels as a writer of lyric-epics. His 
poems may conveniently be divided into four classes : 

1. Poems which have no definite historical or 
geographical background, such as Das Schloss am 
Meer, Des S angers Finch, Der Wirtin Tochterlein, 
and Der gnte Kamerad. 

2. Poems which are based on Northern or Swa- 
bian sagas and history, as Der blinde Konig, Sieg- 
fried und Rolandlieder, Tells Tod and Schwabische 
Kunde. 

3. Poems whose material was taken from French 
and English history, as Bertran de Born, Taillejer, 
Harold, and Das Gluck von Edenhall. 

4. Poems which refer to scenes in Spain, as Die 
Bidassoabriicke and Der Waller. 

To these may be added a few allegorical poems, 



176 GERMAN STUDENTS 1 MANUAL 



and some lyrics, which appear as patriotic, hunt- 
ing, and drinking songs, as Jdgerlied, Einkehr, and 
Die Kapelle. Uhland's dramas show little dramatic 
talent, and only limited knowledge of theatrical re- 
quirements, as may be seen in the two historical 
dramas Ernst, Herzog von Schwaben, and Ludwig 
der Bayer. 

With Uhland we must mention Justinus A. C. 
Kerner and Gustav Schwab ; the former, a physi- 
cian in Weinsberg, wrote on visionary subjects, and 
leads the reader into the region of dreams and mys- 
teries, as in Die Seherin von Prevorst; — the latter, 
a clergyman, possessed a cheerful disposition, and 
wrote on a variety of subjects, but as a poet he was 
inferior to both Uhland and Kerner. He is perhaps 
best remembered by his student song Bemooster 
Bursche zieh' ich aus. 

Among the Swabian writers not directly connected 
with the " Dichterbund " are Eduard Morike, who 
wrote beautiful lyrics, novels, and the interesting 
story Mozart auf der Reise nach Prag, and Wilhelm 
Hauff, remembered as the author of the historical 
romance Lichtenstein, — in close imitation of Scott, — 
and Phantasien im Bremer Rathskeller. As a poet 
he is best known by his Reiters Morgengesang and 
Soldatenliebe. 

Anastasius Grun (Anton Alexander Graf von 
Auersperg), made himself popular throughout Ger- 
many by his liberal political views. His romance 



THE PERIOD OF TRANSITION 



177 



Der letzte Ritter glorifies Maximilian I and imitates 
Uhland in kindly humor and earnestness. Joseph 
Christian Freiherr von Zedlitz followed the tra- 
ditions of the Romantic school. Among his best 
ballads are Nachtliche Heerschau, Das Geisterschifj , 
Das Weib des Raubers, and Mariechen. His best 
work is Todtenkrdnze. Among the Austrian writers 
Lenau is the most important lyric poet, and Grill- 
parzer the best dramatist. 

Deep melancholy hangs like a cloud over all the 
writings of Nikolaus Lenau (1802-50), who has 
been called "Der Dichter des Schmerzes." Neither 
in Austria nor in America could he find freedom from 
religious doubt and pessimism. Nature had a pecul- 
iar fascination for him, as is shown in his exquisite 
and touching Schilflieder and Haidebilder; and what 
could be more pathetic than his Bitte an die Nacht. 
His poems Niagara, Das Blockhaus, and Der In- 
dianerzug illustrate his pessimistic impressions of 
America. In his longer works, Faust, Savonarola, 
and Die Albigenser, he manifests a despair which is 
characteristic of the literature of his country even 
to this day. Stricken with paralysis, and partially 
insane, he was taken to Austria, where he died in 
1850. 

Franz Grillparzer (1 791-1872), was the fore- 
most of the Austrian poets who were influenced by 
the Romantic movement, but only late in life was he 
permitted to enjoy the favor and recognition which 

Ger. Stu. Man. — 12 



178 GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 



he merited. Grillparzer was passionate and quick- 
tempered, and a pietistic vein runs through all his 
plays. As a dramatist he surpassed all his contem- 
poraries, taking his models from the classics and the 
Spanish writers. His dramas are characterized by 
fullness of thought, a rapid succession of events, and 
true dramatic life. His fate tragedy, Die Ahnfrau, 
in which the ancestress appears when any evil is 
about to happen to the ill-fated family, and Sappho, 
whose unhappy love and tragic death are told in 
beautiful verse, made the poet famous. The latter, 
as also the trilogy Das goldene Vliess, — the symbol of 
destruction and man's guilt, — and Des Meeres und 
der Liebe Wellen (Hero and Leander), treat in a 
masterly manner material taken from Greek litera- 
ture. His historical dramas Konig Ottokars Gluck 
und Ende, Ein treuer Diener seines Herrn, and Ein 
Bruderzwist im Hause Habsburg were greatly in- 
fluenced by Schiller. In his tragedy Die Judin von 
Toledo, Lope de Vega's influence is seen, while in 
his masterpiece, Der Traum ein Leben, both French 
and Spanish material was used. The last complete 
work which he was permitted to see presented on the 
stage, the comedy Weh? dem, der lugt, was so poorly 
received that the poet felt offended, and made no 
further attempts to please the public. Although his 
countrymen were slow to recognize his rare gifts, he 
was accorded at the close of his life a part of that 
favor and appreciation which were due him. He 



THE PERIOD OF TRANSITION 



179 



lies buried near Beethoven, who, with Haydn and 
Mozart, was among his favorite musicians. 

" Young Germany" 

After the War of Liberation was over, a group of 
writers, vaguely called "Das junge Deutschland," 
attempted to revolutionize German literature. In 
respect to social, political, and religious institutions, 
their tendencies were generally negative; they re- 
pudiated the spirit of Romanticism, but they had 
nothing better to offer, and used literature merely to 
further their political ambitions, and to give expres- 
sion to their personal views on the social questions of 
the time; the Bundesrat, however, forbade the pub- 
lication of these writings in 1835. Although, as 
literary reformers, the "Young German" writers 
were a failure, they no doubt assisted in advancing 
the interests of society, church, and literature, by 
imitating French models. Two main classes mani- 
fested themselves, — the one advocated the complete 
overthrow of existing conditions, the other delighted 
in the description of the wanton and tragic scenes 
of life. To the latter class belong the " unruly 
genius" Christian Dietrich Grabbe (1801-36), 
whose plays are marred by the absurd declamation 
with which they abound; Otto Ludwig (1813-65), 
who gained a reputation through the tragedies Der 
Erbjorster and Die Makkabder, and the excellent 
novel Zwischen Himmel und Erde; and Christian 



180 GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 



Friedrich Hebbel (1813-63), the son of a poor 
mason in Holstein, who by persistent efforts acquired 
an education, and rose to be a dramatist of note. 
He was original and thorough, and exerted a power- 
ful influence on the development of the German 
drama. His first tragedy, Judith, is characterized 
by strong passions and horrible incidents, but it was 
played in Berlin and made the author celebrated. 
Maria Magdalena, a burgher tragedy, represents the 
tragic conflict resulting from the modern man's in- 
ability to adjust himself properly to his environment. 
Other dramas completed at this time are Genoveva, 
H erodes tend Mariamne, and Agnes Bernauer. In 
his masterpiece, Gyges una sein Ring, Hebbel com- 
bined the tragic themes of all his former works, and 
shows a tendency toward realism. His trilogy Die 
Nibelungen resembles Wagner's opera of the same 
name in the legendary-epic material treated, and also 
in its artistic purposes. Demetrius, his last drama, 
like Schiller's, remained unfinished. 

Among the well-known revolutionary writers is 
Ludwig Borne, a converted Jew, who devoted 
himself to journalism, and became one of the most 
bitter adversaries of the government. In his Briefe 
aus Paris he shows himself to be a masterly political 
pamphleteer. Other leaders of this movement were 
Heinrich Laube and Karl F. Gutzkow. Laube 
was also a journalist, and was greatly influenced by 
Schiller. One of his best romances is Das junge 



THE PERIOD OF TRANSITION 181 

Europa, in which the author discusses the advanced 
ideas of his time. Gutzkow, whom we may consider 
a real leader of " Young Germany," was a journalist 
of considerable note, and displayed much ability as a 
novelist and dramatist, but his productions were 
often marred by his bitter criticism and harsh judg- 
ment of the existing moral and social conditions. 
His romance Die Ritter vom Geiste, in nine volumes, 
is a description of the evils of modern society, with a 
possible remedy, and may be considered a forerunner 
of the modern social novel in Germany. Among 
his remaining novels are Der Zauberer von Rom and 
Hohenschwangau. In his most successful drama, 
Uriel Acosta, he favors freedom of opinion, and pre- 
sents tragic situations in a forcible manner. Among 
his best works is the historical comedy Zopj und 
Schwert, which reflects the time of Friedrich Wil- 
helm I of Prussia. Prominent among the lyric writ- 
ers of this movement are Georg Herwegh, known 
by such poems as Reiterlied and Strophen aus der 
Fremde; Hermann Ferdinand Freiligrath, by 
his volume of political poems Ein Glaubensbekennt- 
niss, and other poems like O lieb* so lang* du lieben 
kannst; and Hoffmann von Fallersleben, as a 
writer of excellent Volkslieder, of which Deutschland, 
Deutschland iiber dies has attained well-deserved 
popularity. "Young Germany" met opposition in 
writers like Karl L. Immermann, who satirizes the 
spirit of the time in his best romance, Miinchhausen, 



182 GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 



and truthfully portrays society, showing the bright as 
well as the dark side of life, and in patriots like Eman- 
uel Geibel, who did not approve of the introduc- 
tion of French influence and models in German lit- 
erature. Possessed of deep piety, and free from bitter 
party feeling, Geibel longed to see Germany united. 
In his collections of political poems he manifests a 
conciliatory spirit, but little individuality. Other 
poems have become popular through the love of free- 
dom and the Christian principles which they express. 

In direct contrast with Geibel' s serious con- 
templative nature stands Heinrich Heine (1799- 
1856), the most talented of all the writers who were 
associated with " Young Germany." The son of 
Jewish parents, he was destined for a commercial 
career; but this was distasteful to him and he took 
up the study of law at Bonn and Gottingen, and 
then went to Berlin, where he was welcomed to a 
literary circle which met at the home of Varnhagen 
von Ense. Here he published his first collection of 
poems, followed in 1823 by two tragedies, Almansor 
and William Ratclifj, which attracted little attention. 
After a short stay at Cuxhaven he returned to Got- 
tingen and received his degree in 1825. While here 
he made a tour of the Harz Mountains, an account 
of which is given in his Harzreise, which brought 
him renown. In these years he planned a Faust, and 
wrote the novel-fragment Der Rabbi von Bacharach. 
Before he left Gottingen and took up the legal pro- 



THE PERIOD OF TRANSITION 183 



fession, he embraced the Christian faith. During the 
next five years he published his Reisebilder and Buch 
der Lieder, upon which his popularity rests. With 
the simple language of the folk song, the graphic 
descriptions of Goethe, and the emotional ballad 
style of Burger, he wrote some of the most charming 
love songs and romances to be found in the German 
language. Who has not been touched by the beauty 
and pathos in Die Wallfahrt nach Kevlaar and An 
meine Mutter ? But he lacked moral balance, and 
indulged in much bitter satire, attacking friend and 
enemy alike; his attacks on the government became 
so hostile that he was declared an outlaw. In 1831 
he went to Paris, where he spent the remainder of 
his life. Here as journalist and literary critic he 
manifested his contempt for Germany and Ger- 
man literature. In 1843 his Atta Troll, ein Soni- 
mernachtstraum, was written, and was followed the 
next year by Deutschland, ein Winter mar chen. Con- 
fined to his bed by a spinal disease from 1848 until 
his death in 1856, he composed his Romanzero, in 
some respects his noblest work. No other German 
poet has so charmingly described the sea, which to 
Heine symbolized "the seething unrest of human 
life"; no lyric poet has been more widely read, nor 
has exerted a more lasting influence. " Heine," says 
Matthew Arnold, "is incomparably the most impor- 
tant figure of that quarter of a century that follows 
the death of Goethe." 



THE MODERN PERIOD 



The exclusion of Austria from the confederacy 
of German states in 1866, and the transference of the 
hereditary imperial authority to the ruling house 
of Prussia in 1871, solved the political problem for 
Imperial Germany. A new era for the development 
of the political, social, and economic conditions of 
Germany had come. The influence which the new 
ideas exerted on the literature of this period has 
manifested itself in the national consciousness of 
the German people and in the realism so character- 
istic of modern literature. On the threshold of this 
period stands Richard Wagner (1813-83), a writer 
and composer by whom the national character was 
stimulated in the modern musical drama. His pro- 
ductions mark the beginning of a new epoch in the 
development of the German theater. He found the 
material for his dramas in the national sagas, and 
knew how to give the proper poetic, musical, and 
scenic expression to them. As early as 1842 Wagner's 
Rienzi demonstrated his remarkable artistic ability as 
a dramatic composer. While in Paris the next year 
Wagner composed Der fliegende Hollander, which 
was followed by Tannhduser in 1845, an< ^ Lohengrin 
in 1850. His next work, Der Ring des Nibelungen, 
184 



THE MODERN PERIOD 



1853, ^ s a trilogy; the first drama, Die Walkiire, is 
preceded by a "Vorabend," Das Rheingold; the 
second drama is called Siegfried, and the third, Got- 
terddmmerung. Two other masterpieces, Tristan und 
Isolde, 1865, and the comedy Die Meister singer von 
Number g, 1868, added to the composer's well-earned 
fame. His last work, Parsifal, 1882, was not received 
with as much enthusiasm by the younger generation 
as was accorded some of his earlier dramas. Wag- 
ner's operas are presented every summer in the 
theater he himself built at Bayreuth, in Bavaria. 

The literature of this period, in addition to Wag- 
ner's music dramas, is represented by a long list of 
able writers, who, in the novel and drama, show 
great individuality and a strong democratic spirit. 
The influence of Tolstoy and Ibsen is manifest in 
no small degree in the later writings of this age. 

Among the novelists who were active in the pre- 
ceding as well as in the modern period is Gustav 
Freytag (1816-95). As a dramatist he evinced 
much talent early in his literary career, and although 
some of his dramas are now considered of mediocre 
grade, his comedy Die Joumalisten (1852) is still 
popular. His Technik des Dramas, written ten years 
later, is a valuable treatise on dramaturgy. Soil und 
Haben (1855), written in praise of German com- 
mercialism, and translated into different languages, 
is perhaps his best novel. Die verlorene Handschrift 
(1864) is more artificial than the preceding novel 



1 86 GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 



and treats of scholarly society. In his Bilder aus der 
deutschen Vergangenheit (1859-62), he gives the 
German people a well-written history of their past 
which he supplements with a group of romances, 
called Die Ahnen (1872-80). 

Another novelist who treats of the social tendencies 
of his time is Friedrich Spielhagen (b. 1829), 
who became known through his Problematische Na- 
turen (i860), which is completed in Durch Nacht 
mm Licht, and shows that in all human endeavors 
there is a unity and solidarity of interests. The 
same ideas prevail in Die von Hohenstein (1864), In 
Reih und Glied (1866), and Hammer und Amboss 
(1869). In 1876 appeared Sturmflut, which com- 
pares the struggles in society and the financial 
world after the Franco-German War, with a storm 
on the shores of the Baltic Sea, and may be con- 
sidered one of his best works. Although he was 
always in sympathy with the literary movements of 
the day, many of his recent novels have not become 
very popular. 

The provincial novel, which had been cultivated 
by Johann Peter Hebel of Basel, who pictured 
scenes in the Black Forest, in the dialect of the people, 
was revived a generation later by Berthold Auer- 
bach (1812-82). He was a man of Jewish extraction, 
and being a native of the Black Forest he naturally 
portrayed in his novels the life and customs of this 
locality. His first novel, Spinoza, was followed in 



« 



THE MODERN PERIOD 187 

1843 by a collection of stories under the title Schwarz- 
walder Dorjgeschichten, which immediately attracted 
attention. The spirit, beauty, and charm of the 
Swabian dialect are found in all these tales. In his 
well-known novels Die Frau Projessorin (1846) and 
Barfiissele (1857) he shows a tendency to philoso- 
phize, while in the long novels Auj der Hdhe and 
Das Landhaus am Rhein he attempts to apply his 
Spinozan philosophy to the social problems of his 
age. Waldjried (1874) has a political background. 
Later in life Auerbach returned to the " Village 
Tale" and wrote Nach dreissig Jahren, Der Forst- 
tneister, and Brigitta. Another writer of provincial 
novels is Fritz Reuter (1810-74), a North German 
humorist who wrote in the " Plattdeutsch " dialect. 
While a student he was arrested for wearing the 
colors of a political club, and was condemned to 
death, but the sentence was commuted to thirty 
years' imprisonment. After serving a part of his 
sentence he was released and wrote Lauschen und 
Riemels, a collection of short stories and rhymes. 
His next work Ut de Franzosentid was followed by 
U t mine Festungstid and Ut mine Stromtid, which are 
autobiographical in character. Besides Karl von 
Holtei, who wrote poems in the Silesian dialect, 
we must here mention the democratic Austrian, 
Ludwig Anzengruber (1839-89), who has written 
his chief works in dialect, and stands for all that is 
best in the provincial novel. A wholesome optimism 



1 88 GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 



pervades his works; and, more of a realist than 
Auerbach, he does not idealize his peasants but 
pictures them as they really are. Two of his best 
dramas, Die Kreuzelschreiber and Der M eineidbauer , 
have a strong realistic tendency. He also wrote a 
series of "Village Tales" and two powerful novels, 
Der Schandfleck and Der Sternsteinhoj. Following 
closely in the steps of Anzengruber is Peter Roseg- 
ger (b. 1843), whose prolific writings picture Styrian 
landscape and Styrian folk. He makes his charac- 
ters a part of their environment, and charms us by 
the simplicity of his diction as well as by his broad 
sympathy and ability to interpret human nature. 
His best known works are Die Schrijten des Wald- 
schulmeisters and Das -ewige Licht. 

Charles Sealsfield, whose real name was Karl 
Anton Postl, and Friedrich Gerstacker wrote 
about America, but their novels have not been ap- 
preciated, except perhaps Gerstacker' s Germels- 
hausen, which gives a delightful picture of a German 
village. As writers of antiquarian novels, Felix 
Dahn (b. 1834) and Georg Ebers (1837-98) show 
a more didactic spirit; the former is well known by 
his novel Ein Kampf urn Rom, and the latter, a noted 
Egyptologist, by Uarda, Homo sum, and the senti- 
mental novel Eine agyptische Konigstochter. 

The greatest novelist of this age is the Swiss Gott- 
fried Keller (1819-90), who first attracted atten- 
tion by a sort of autobiographical romance, Der griine 



THE MODERN PERIOD 



189 



Heinrich, which was soon followed by a volume 
of novelettes, Die Leute von Seldwyla. Two novels 
of this collection, Romeo und Julia auf dent Dorfe and 
Kleider machen Leute, have become very popular. 
Another collection of novels, Sieben Legenden, ap- 
peared in 1872, and six years later a third collection 
under the title Zilricher Novellen, among which Das 
Fdhnlein der sieben Aufrechten and Der Landvogt 
von Greijensee show Keller's humor and mastery of 
prose fiction. His last novel, Martin Salander, 
written in 1886, was too prosaic to become popular. 
Keller was possessed of true artistic gifts, good com- 
mon sense, and strong patriotism, and has been 
rightly called the "Shakespeare of the German short 
story." 

Another Swiss writer of considerable note is Con- 
rad Ferdinand Meyer (1825-98), whose works 
are characterized by beauty of style and form, subtle 
wit, and perfect skill in scenic descriptions. His 
first novel, Jiirg Jenatsch, gives a good example of 
Swiss patriotism. Der Heilige relates the story of 
Thomas a Becket and Das Amulett describes the 
awful massacre of St. Bartholomew. Gustav Adolf s 
Page, Die Versuchung des Pescara, and Angela Bor- 
gia are also historical in character. Besides other 
historical novelettes, and a small book of poems, 
Meyer wrote a good epic, Huttens letzte Tage. 

A popular writer of short stories is Theodor 
Storm (181 7-88). His writings are marked by a love 



GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 



of home and nature, sweetness of language, and ten- 
derness of sentiment. He has a fondness for remi- 
niscence, and his best novels reveal an undertone of 
sadness and resignation. The traces of Romantic 
influence found in his earlier novels, Im Sonnen- 
schein, Ein grimes Blatt, and in his best known 
story, Immensee, are less pronounced in Psyche, and 
in his later stories, In St. Jilrgen, Carsten Curator, 
Viola Tricolor, and Pole Poppenspaler, which show 
a healthy realism and a more positive individuality. 
Storm also published some Gedichte (1853), which 
give him a place as a lyric poet of note. 

A writer who has had many imitators is Joseph 
Victor von Scheffel (1826-86), author of the 
popular epic Der Trompeter von Sakkingen. Schef- 
fel is decidedly German in thought and feeling, and 
his works reflect the taste and the ideals of his time. 
Patriotic and genial, he, more than any other modern 
writer, has revived the old Teutonic spirit, which 
may account to some extent for his great popularity 
among the German people. In his younger years 
Scheffel wrote many humorous student songs, which 
he collected, and very reluctantly published, under 
the title of Gaudeamus, in 1867. His best work is the 
historical romance Ekkehard, eine Geschichte aus 
dem zehnten Jahrhundert. The enthusiastic cele- 
bration of his fiftieth birthday in all parts of Ger- 
many demonstrates how greatly his works have been 
appreciated by his people. 



THE MODERN PERIOD 191 

Foremost among his numerous followers are 
Julius Wolff (b. 1834), who wrote Der Ratten- 
j anger von Hameln, Der wUde Jdger, and Tann- 
hauser, and Rudolf Baumbach (b. 1840), whose 
Lieder eines fahrenden Gesellen reveal a kinship to 
Scheffel's sentimental lyrics, whom he resembles, also, 
in his love for his Fatherland, and his strong Roman- 
tic tendency. But it is as a delineator of Thuringian 
village life that Baumbach most appeals to his read- 
ers. His keen sense of humor, simplicity of form, 
and tender pathos have made his stories popular, t 
Among his best productions are Zlatorog, an Alpine 
saga, Horand und Hilde, Der Schwiegersohn, Fran 
Holde, and Das Habiclitsfrdidein. 

The most productive writer of this period is Paljl. 
Heyse (b. 1830), whose works have been published 
in twenty-nine volumes, containing poems, tales, 
dramas, and novels. He has also translated several 
volumes of Spanish and Italian literature. In the 
drama he has been only moderately successful, but as 
a writer of short stories he is without a rival. His 
style is graphic and simple, and shows remarkable 
artistic sense and perfection. His portrayal of Italian 
characters is especially good, being true to life and 
full of vigorous action. L'Arrabbiata is in this re- 
spect unsurpassed. Other novels well known to 
American students of German are Das Madchen von 
Treppi, Die Hochzeit an] Capri, An fang und Ende, 
Die Einsamcn, and Die Blinden. His more am- 



192 GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 



bitious novels, like Kinder der Welt and Im Para- 
diese, show traces of pessimism and a lack of form 
and sincerity. Heyse was called to Munich by Maxi- 
milian II in 1854, where another talented writer of 
short stories, Wilhelm H. Riehl (1823-97), became 
celebrated for his realistic and vivid allusions to the 
political and social conditions of Germany's past. 
His " No ve lien " are well written and of a high moral 
standard. He is best known by his Kultur geschicht- 
liche Novellen. Especially entertaining are such 
stories as Der Fluch der Schdnheit, Das Spielmanns- 
kind, Der stumme Ratsherr, and Burg Neideck. 

Two North Germans, Wilhelm Jensen and 
Adolf Wilbrandt, both born in 1837, imitate the 
Munich writers in thought and style. The former is 
the author of the beautiful prose idyl Die braune 
Erica; the latter is more successful as a novelist than 
as a dramatist. His Jugendliebe and Der Meister von 
Palmyra are read in our schools to-day. 

Among the women writers who attracted con- 
siderable attention in the nineteenth century is 
Annette von Droste-Hulshoff (1 797-1848), who 
is without doubt the greatest poetess Germany has 
produced. She was fond of nature, which she beauti- 
fully describes in the cycle of Haidebilder, and her 
religious poems are equal to those written during 
the Reformation Period. She discards all senti- 
mentality, lacks consideration for her readers, and 
inclines toward pessimism. 



THE MODERN PERIOD 193 



Fiction is ably represented by the two eminent 
women Grafin Ida Hahn-Hahn and Fanny Le- 
wald. Both show in their writings the influence 
of " Young Germany." In her collection of novels 
Aus der Gesellschaft, Hahn-Hahn delights in portray- 
ing aristocratic society; Fanny Lewald, while trying 
to solve the same problems of society, is more prac- 
tical and reasonable, and may be considered the 
early champion of the "new woman." Luise 
Muhlbach became known by her historical ro- 
mances, and Wilhelmine von Hillern by her 
story Hdher als die Kirche. E. Marlitt, whose 
real name is Eugenie John, gained popularity by her 
novels Goldelse, Reichs grafin Gisela, Das Geheimnis 
der alien Mamsell, and others, which have been trans- 
lated into English. 

The Austrian Marie von Ebner-Eschenbach 
(b. 1830) is recognized as one of the best of the short 
story writers. In Die Freiherren von Gemperlein she 
reveals her wit and satire in depicting aristocratic 
life in Austria. Representatives of the woman's cause 
are Gabriele Reuter and Helene Bohlau. Other 
writers worthy of mention are Carmen Sylva, the 
queen of Roumania, Betty Paoli, Ottilie Wilder- 
muth, Clara Viebig, and Ricarda Huch. 

To the latter part of this period belong the hu- 
morists Wilhelm Raabe, Wilhelm Busch, and 
Heinrich Seidel. Raabe is not very well known, 
except in Germany, where he first attracted attention 

Ger. Stu. Man.— 13 



194 GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 

by the charming idyl Die Chronik der Sperlings gasse, 
which was followed by many stories after the manner 
and style of Jean Paul. Busch is known by Max und 
Moritz and Die fromme Helene, and Seidel by his 
inimitable Leber echt Huhnchen (1882), which never 
fails to interest the reader by its graceful style and 
delightful humor. 

In the decade which followed the Franco-Prussian 
War, the stern historical spirit of Germany was rep- 
resented by Ernst von Wildenbruch (1845-1908), 
who, after writing Lieder und Balladen, turned his 
attention to the historical drama. His tragedy Die 
Karolinger was received with great enthusiasm in 
Berlin in 1881. Plays followed in rapid succession, 
and in 1884 he was awarded the Schiller prize for 
superior work. Christoph Marlow (1884) and Das 
neue Gebot (1886) mark an advance in dramatic 
skill, while Die Quitzows (1888), although more 
faulty in structure, was a great success on the stage. 
Der Generalfeldoberst (1889) and Der neue Herr 
(1891) give vivid historical pictures and portray 
accurately the real life of the common people. With 
the double tragedy Heinrich und Heinrichs Ge- 
schlecht Wildenbruch scored a great success, and re- 
ceived the double Schiller prize. His reputation was 
further augmented by Die Tochter des Erasmus 
(1898), a Reformation drama. Later in life Wilden- 
bruch returned to fiction and produced such in- 
teresting and pathetical stories as Der Letzte and 



THE MODERN PERIOD 



!95 



Das edle Blut. Among his other numerous stories 
are Der Meister von Tanagra, Eijernde Liebe, Die 
heilige Frau, and Die Schw ester seele. 

Theodor Fontane (1819-98), although of French 
parentage, was born at Neuruppin in the Mark of 
Brandenburg. His first historical romance, Vor 
dent Sturm (1878), shows the influence of Willibald 
Alexis, but Fontane gradually worked his way to- 
wards a realistic style, and proved himself the fore- 
runner of the modern German novel by his publica- 
tion of VAdultera in 1882. Effi Briest (1895) which 
depicts life and scenes in the Mark of Brandenburg, 
is perhaps his best work. 

Another native of North Germany, and a very 
talented poet, was Detlev von Liliencron (1844- 
1909). He wrote several dramas and other prose 
works, but his fame rests upon his lyrics, the first 
collection of which Adjutantenritte und andere Ge- 
dichte was published in 1883. 

At the close of the nineteenth century the writings 
of Friedrich W. Nietzsche, the poet-philosopher, 
voiced the feelings of the younger generation of 
writers, to whom the teachings of Schopenhauer and 
the spirit of Hegelianism had become distasteful, 
and advocated a more optimistic " Weltanschauung." 
At this time German literature also came again un- 
der foreign influence as in the Storm and Stress 
period, which resulted in the realistic movement. 
Zola in France, Ibsen in Scandinavia, and Tolstoy 



196 GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 



in Russia were the recognized leaders of the move- 
ment and were followed in Germany by Hauptmann 
and Hermann Sudermann (b. 1857). The new 
movement represents a struggle between realism and 
idealism, and affects the drama more than the novel. 
Sudermann, an East Prussian, is a novelist and 
dramatist who has, to a large extent, taken his 
models from the foreign modern naturalistic schools. 
In 1887 he published a collection of short stories un- 
der the title Im Zwielicht, and also his first work of 
real importance, Frau Sorge, one of the greatest mod- 
ern German novels. These works were followed 
by two short tales, Die Geschwister, in 1888, and 
Der Katzensteg, considered his finest work of fic- 
tion, in 1889. Sudermann's longest novel, Es war, 
appeared in 1894, but it was written ten years earlier, 
which may account in a measure for some of its de- 
fects. While his novels are written in simple Ger- 
man, and touch all phases of human experiences, his 
main fault lies in the too elaborate delineation of his 
characters. But it is as a dramatist that Sudermann 
has gained well-merited fame. His first drama, Die 
Ehre (1889), at once attracted the attention of all 
Germany, and revealed him as a dramatist of great 
force and skill. His next play, Sodoms Ende (1891), 
a satire on false ideas of honor, was less successful. 
In Heimat (1893), known also as Magda, the au- 
thor treats the dramatic motive of Die Ehre from 
a different standpoint. This is Sudermann's most 



THE MODERN PERIOD 197 



popular play. The somewhat grim comedy Die 
Schmetterlingsschlacht (1895) was followed by his 
resignation tragedy Das Gliick im Winkel (1895), 
which did not meet with the success it deserved. 
Morituri (1897) is a collection of three one-act plays, 
Teja, Fritzchen, and Das Ewig-Mdnnliche, each 
picturing the feelings of a man in different ages of 
civilization, conscious of the approach of death. Jo- 
hannes (1898) has a biblical hero with a modern 
background. His next play, Die drei Reiherjedern 
(1898), is of an entirely different stamp and may be 
called a "Marchendrama." In the later dramas 
Johannisjeuer (1900) and Es lebe das Leben (1902), 
the author again concerns himself with social prob- 
lems. The comedy Der Sturmgeselle Sokrates (1903) 
and Das Blumenboot (1905), a four-act drama, are 
not up to the high standard of his former works. 
Sudermann's novels, as well as his dramas, show a 
dramatic quality, simplicity of art, skill in depicting 
scenes, courage of conviction, and a broad treatment 
of the social problems of his time not to be found in 
any other writer. 

The second and most original writer of the realistic 
school is Gerhart Hauptmann (b. 1862) a Silesian, 
considered by some the greatest literary man in 
Germany to-day. He is the first German man of 
letters upon whom Oxford has conferred the degree 
of ll.d. His first poetic publication, Promethiden- 
los (1885), is modeled on Byron's Childe Harold 



198 GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 



while Vor Sonnenaujgang (1889), Das Friedensjest 
(1890), and Einsame Menschen (1891) show the in- 
fluence of Zola, Tolstoy, and Ibsen. But his rare 
dramatic power is better revealed in the naturalis- 
tic tragedy Die Weber (1892), which portrays the 
physical distress of the Silesian weavers, and their re- 
volt against oppression. This work attracted much 
attention and made its author popular. His next 
drama, Kollege Crampton (1892), the story of a 
painter who has fallen into evil ways, and Der Biber- 
pelz (1893), a comedy of provincial life, were also 
well received, and show Hauptmann's skill in ac- 
curate milieu painting. Idealism is blended with 
realism in the unique and pathetic play Hanneles 
Himmelfakrt (1893), which was a remarkable suc- 
cess, but the historical tragedy Florian Geyer (1895), 
which takes us back to the restless time of Gotz von 
Berlichingen, was a complete failure. In 1897 ap- 
peared the " Marchendrama " Die versunkene Glocke, 
which attracted unprecedented attention in Ger- 
many and passed through more than fifty editions, 
but in America it met with a cool reception on the 
stage. Symbolism, allegory, and realistic features 
are pleasingly intermingled, and easily interpreted. 
Hauptmann's next drama, Fuhrmann Henschel 
(1898), was written in the Silesian dialect, like Die 
Weber, and marks a return to the realistic method of 
his earlier dramas. It is considered one of the great- 
est peasant tragedies ever written, and found many 



THE MODERN PERIOD 



imitators in Germany. The prologue of Shake- 
speare's Taming oj the Shrew gave Hauptmann the 
idea for the tramp-comedy Schluck und Jau (1900). 
In this same year Michael Kramer, the story of an 
artist who just fell short of greatness, was written, 
and although lacking in dramatic action its char- 
acters are attractive and well depicted. The tragi- 
comedy Der rote Hahn, a companion piece to Der 
Biberpelz, appeared in the following year. Not 
quite up to his high standard of excellence is Der 
arme Heinrich (1902), which resembles very much 
the mediaeval epic of the same name by Hartmann 
von Aue. Hauptmann' s admirers were again dis- 
appointed when the five -act drama, Rose Bernd, ap- 
peared in 1903. Elga, a family drama, was written 
in 1906, and is based on one of Grillparzer's novels. 
His latest work is Kaiser Karls Geisel (1908). In 
spite of the many defects to be found in Hauptmann's 
works, we must give him the place of honor among 
the greatest writers in Germany to-day. 

The German theater has been provided, also, with 
plays by minor dramatists, which have reflected 
great credit on the literary activity of modern Ger- 
many. Max Halbe (b. 1865), has contributed the 
two interesting plays, Jugend (1893) and Mutter 
Erde (1898); and Ludwig Fulda (b. 1862) has 
added several dramas after the models of his prede- 
cessors. The little comedy Die Aufrichtigen first 
brought him into notice as an original writer. Be- 



200 GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 



sides publishing translations lie has produced some 
important plays which have met with considerable 
success on the stage. In his three-act play Das 
verlorene Paradies (1890), he shows superiority in 
many respects over his models, Frau Sorge and Die 
Ehre. His most popular work is Der Talisman 
(1893), while Der Sohn des Kali j en (1897) is perhaps 
his best. His more recent dramas betray many 
weaknesses, but reveal considerable refinement of 
diction and exquisite humor. His latest comedy is 
Der Dummkopj. 

Among other representative contemporaries whose 
realistic writings have attracted attention are O. E. 
Hartleben (b. 1864), Karl Bleibtreu (b. 1859), 
M. Kretzer (b. 1854), K. Alberti (b. 1862), and 
the Austrian writers A. Schnitzler (b. 1862), H. 
Bahr (b. 1863), and H. von Hofmannsthal (b. 
1874). 

Although the period after the Revolution of 1848 
has been characterized by pessimism, the period 
since the Franco-Prussian War has witnessed a new 
awakening of the national spirit, and we believe this 
revival of literary interest at the close of the nine- 
teenth century and at the beginning of the twentieth 
is indicative of a still greater and grander develop- 
ment in German literature. 



APPENDIX 



The German Empire 

The German Empire has existed in its present 
political condition since 187 1. It embraces the cen- 
tral part of Europe, and is therefore in close touch 
with Russia, Austria-Hungary, France, Belgium, the 
Netherlands, Denmark, and Great Britain. Its area 
is 208,830 square miles, while its colonies comprise 
a territory about five times as large as the empire 
itself. It extends 750 miles east and west, and about 
600 miles north and south, and has a sea frontage 
of about 1,200 miles. According to the statistics of 
1905, it ranks fourth in population (60,641,278), and 
second in size among the countries of Europe. Ger- 
many presents two distinct physical formations: the 
northern part is lowland, while the central and south- 
ern portions are highland, giving a diversity of scen- 
ery, — snow-capped highlands, wooded hills, sandy 
plains, and fertile valleys. Except the Danube, 
its most important streams flow north and empty 
into the North and Baltic Seas. The Rhine belongs 
to three countries, Switzerland, Germany, and the 

201 



202 GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 



Netherlands, and is commercially the most impor- 
tant river of Germany. Its most picturesque scenery 
is to be found between Coblenz and Mainz. The 
largest ports on the North Sea are Hamburg on the 
Elbe, and Bremen on the Weser; the Baltic ports are 
Stettin, Danzig, Kiel, and Lubeck. The most north- 
ern mountain system, beginning in the east with the 
Sudetic Mountains, and including the Riesengebirge, 
Erzgebirge, Fichtelgebirge, and Thuringian Forest, 
with the Harz Mountains a little to the north, ex- 
tends through the middle of Germany in a general 
east and west direction, and forms the boundary 
between North and South Germany. The Taunus, 
in the west, is surrounded by one of the best wine 
regions of Germany, and farther south along the 
opposite bank of the Rhine rise the Vosges Moun- 
tains. In the south are the Swabian and Franconian 
Jura, the Black Forest, and the Tyrolese Alps. The 
Zugspitze, in Bavaria, 9,725 feet high, is the highest 
mountain. Germany is especially rich in mineral 
springs, the most noted of which are Baden-Baden, 
Kissingen, Wiesbaden, Homburg, and Ems. The 
climate is less diversified than might be expected, 
the greater heat of the more southern latitudes being 
modified by the Alps, and the ocean counteracts the 
cold of the north. The Rhinelands, the Moselle, 
Main, and Neckar valleys have the most attractive 
climate, while the south slope of the Taunus pro- 
duces excellent wines, almonds, and chestnuts. 



APPENDIX 



203 



Maize is grown in the fertile valleys of the Rhine 
and the Neckar, but rye is the chief cereal cultivated 
for food. 

Until about the middle of the last century Germany 
was chiefly an agricultural nation, but with the estab- 
lishment of internal free trade (Zollverein, 1833) 
many of the barriers to commerce were removed and 
Germany rose to the front rank as an industrial and 
commercial power. 

In drugs and other chemical products Germany 
almost controls the markets of the world, having 
nearly seven hundred factories. The manufacture 
of colors has been carried to great perfection. Essen, 
Bochum, and Witten are noted for their steel works, 
the largest establishment being that of Krupp at 
Essen, famous for its cannon. Among the porcelain 
factories the one at Meissen (established 17 10) is the 
oldest and most famous. The so-called Dresden 
china comes from this factory. Silks and velvets are 
manufactured chiefly in Rhenish Prussia. 

With one of the most extensive railway systems in 
the world, owned largely by the various state govern- 
ments, with a postal department which collects and 
delivers mail matter more frequently in its large 
cities than is the case in our own country, with the 
telephone and telegraph managed by the German 
postal authorities, and with her high grade commercial 
and technical schools, Germany offers superior oppor- 
tunities for the development of all her industries. 



204 GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 



GOVERXHENT 



The German Empire is governed according to the 
Constitution of April 16, 1871. It consists of four 
kingdoms, six grand duchies, five duchies, seven 
principalities, and three free cities, in all twenty-five 
states and one Imperial Territory, under the King of 
Prussia, William II., to whom belongs also the title 
of German Emperor. 



KINGDOMS 

Prussia 
Bavaria 
Saxony 
Wiirttemberg 



GRAND DUCHIES 

Baden 
Hesse 

Mecklenburg-Schwerin 
Saxe-Weimar 
Mecklenbu rg-Strelitz 
Oldenburg 



DUCHIES 

Brunswick 

Saxe-Meiningen 

Saxe-Altenburg 

Saxe-Coburg-Gotha 

Anhalt 



PRINCIPALITIES FREE CITIES IMPERIAL 

Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt Llibeck territory 

Schwarzburg-Sondershausen Bremen Alsace-Lorraine 

Waldeck Hamburg 

Reuss (elder line) 

Reuss (younger line) 

Schaumburg-Lippe 

Lippe 

According to the Constitution the legislative and 
the executive power is vested in the Emperor, the 
Federal Council (Bundesrat), and the National 
Parliament (Reichstag) . The Emperor is chief com- 
mander of the military and naval forces; he rep- 
resents the Empire in all its dealings with foreign 
countries, appoints and receives ambassadors and 
consuls, appoints the Imperial Chancellor, and re- 



APPENDIX 



205 



moves him at will, and declares war and makes 
peace ; but he has no veto power such as the President 
of the United States possesses. 

Bundesrat. The Constitution determines that 
there shall be fifty-eight votes in the Bundesrat, of 
which seventeen fall to Prussia. The members are 
appointed by the several states, and must vote as 
instructed by their respective governments. The 
Bundesrat meets annually in Berlin, and sits with 
closed doors. No man can be a member of the 
Bundesrat and of the Reichstag at the same time. 
This body can assemble without the Reichstag, but 
the latter can convene only while the Bundesrat is in 
session. The Chancellor of the Empire, or his sub- 
stitute, is president of this council, whose functions 
are nearly as important as those of the Emperor, 
being not only legislative, but administrative as well. 

Reichstag. While the Bundesrat represents the 
individual states, the Reichstag represents the nation 
as a whole, — the people. It is composed of 397 mem- 
bers, elected by universal suffrage. Prussia alone 
has about 236, or three fifths of the whole number. 
The Emperor calls the Reichstag together, and dis- 
misses it ; in case of dismissal new elections must be 
held within sixty days, and it must reassemble within 
ninety days of its dissolution. The Reichstag meets 
annually, and its members, as such, receive no pay, 
and are uninstructed. This body not only treats 
petitions submitted to it, but may also propose meas- 



2o6 GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 



ures and ask that the Bundesrat act upon them. 
But all important bills are carefully prepared and 
passed by the Bundesrat before they reach the Reichs- 
tag. Generally speaking, the code of parliamentary 
rules governing the Reichstag is neither so exacting 
nor so comprehensive as in our House of Representa- 
tives. The sessions are uninteresting on account of 
the general absence of oratory and wit. The Germans 
are naturally slow and phlegmatic, yet there are men, 
like August Bebel, the Socialist veteran, who stir the 
Reichstag by their fluent and convincing speeches. 

Army and Navy 

The German army of to-day is, as it has been from 
earliest times, "a people in arms." Even in the 
tenth century the words army and navy were syn- 
onymous among the Saxons. The army is the very 
life of the people; and Germany can have peace, and 
exist as a nation only so long as she is well prepared 
for war. 

Nowhere else in the world is the army so closely 
related to the nation, and nowhere else is the con- 
fidence in the army greater, nor any insult to it more 
keenly felt than among the Germans. Aroused by 
such poets as Arndt, Komer, and Schenkendorf, and 
led by such military leaders as Scharnhorst, Gneise- 
nau, Blucher, and von Billow, Germany was able 
to throw off the yoke of Napoleon in the War of Lib- 
eration in 1 813, and the soldier could no longer be 



APPENDIX 



207 



considered a mercenary, as in the Thirty Years' War. 
During the peaceful years which followed, very little 
was done to develop and increase the fighting force, 
until King William of Prussia, feeling his inability to 
cope with his neighbors, began the reorganization of 
the army with the aid of Bismarck, Roon, and von 
Moltke. 

The splendid results of 1866 and 1871 tell the 
story of their labors to unite all Germany, and make 
the army irresistible. Out of this union of the dif- 
ferent states against a common foe came forth the 
present powerful German army. What the fathers 
have obtained through bloody conflicts, the sons 
must preserve as a sacred heritage. The army of 
to-day is, without doubt, the most efficient fighting 
force in the world, and has served as a model for the 
armies of many other countries. In time of peace 
the armed forces of Prussia, Bavaria, and the other 
states are each under command of the sovereign of 
the state; but the German Emperor, William II. , be- 
comes in time of war commander in chief of the army, 
which numbers more than 10,000,000 soldiers, — or 
an army eight times larger than the Japanese army 
which defeated the Russians in the late war. Ger- 
many produces about 250,000 trained soldiers every 
year. 

Every male German, unless physically incapaci- 
tated, owes military sendee from the end of his 
twentieth, to the completion of his thirty-ninth year. 



2o8 GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 



Within this period seven years must be passed in the 
active army, two in actual service (three for cavalry 
and artillery), and the rest in the reserve. The next 
twelve years are passed in the Landwehr; and so 
long as he is enrolled in the reserve, or the first ban of 
the Landwehr, the citizen is liable to be called into 
camp every year for a few weeks. 

The Landsturm consists of all Germans from the 
end of the seventeenth to the end of the forty-fifth 
year who are not enrolled in any of the above men- 
tioned bodies. The Landwehr of the second ban 
and the Landsturm are summoned only in time of 
war. 

Young men over seventeen years of age, who 
volunteer for active service, pass an examination on 
general subjects, and agree to equip and maintain 
themselves while in service, are admitted into the 
reserve after one year's service. This privilege is also 
granted to teachers. 

The present total peace establishment of the Ger- 
man army is 629,508 men exclusive of reserves of 
Landwehr and Landsturm. While the army is pro- 
vided with permanent officers, the body of private 
soldiers is constantly changing. The period of serv- 
ice for the infantry with the colors is two years, for 
the artillery and cavalry three years. Students who 
are able to pay for their own maintenance and equip- 
ment, called "volunteers," need serve but one year 
with the colors. These years of service are no child's 



APPENDIX 



209 



play for the young German. No training can make 
him more willing to serve the land that gave him 
birth, nor better develop his character, broaden him 
educationally, teach him self-denial, and inform him 
concerning the resources of his country, its traffic, 
citizenship, and institutions, than these years of serv- 
ice in the army. Professor Miinsterberg has well 
said: "The years in the army constitute a national 
school-time which keeps body and soul in strength 
and vigor." 

The German navy is to-day virtually under the 
jurisdiction of the Emperor, who may be said to have 
recreated the German fleet, so that it now ranks third 
among the great powers of the world. The present 
personnel consists of 2,315 officers, and 44,432 men. 
Service in the navy, except in the case of officers, is 
unpaid, and is regarded, as in the army, a civic duty. 
This service is not burdensome, and nowhere will 
you find a better system of training, a more enthusi- 
astic spirit animating men, and more efficient officers 
than in the German navy. The Kaiser Wilhelm 
Canal makes it possible for large vessels to reach 
the North Sea from the Baltic, and is a favorable 
refuge in case of necessity. 

The Imperial Family 

The reigning family of Germany is descended 
from Frederick von Hohenzollern (980), and Fred- 
erick William the Elector of Brandenburg (1688), 

Ger. Slu. Man. — 14 



2io GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 



whose son became King of Prussia. Since Janu- 
ary 1 8, 1 87 1, the House of Hohenzollern has been 
vested with the dignity of German Emperor. Wil- 
liam I. was the son of Frederick William III., and the 
much beloved Queen Louise. Simple in tastes, 
straightforward in character, he combined all the 
sterling qualities of true Germanic manhood. In him 
was found a force for shaping the destiny of the na- 
tion; in him the Germanic dream of national unity 
was to be realized. He discerned the noble charac- 
ter and strength of his people, and they in turn 
learned to appreciate the grand old man, so that at 
the age of ninety he was idolized by the whole nation, 
whose feelings are expressed in these words: "His 
Majesty, our most gracious Kaiser, and victorious 
leader in numerous battles, the unifier of Germany's 
princes and people, the father of his country, and cus- 
todian of the peace of Europe, the creator of a new 
ideal world; long may he live!" William I. was suc- 
ceeded by his son Frederick III., who was doomed to 
reign but a few months. The nation looked to him 
for a reconciliation of the differences still existing in 
the Fatherland. He was the purest embodiment of 
all that is noble in German character; and yet many 
feared that had he lived his goodness would have 
been abused and his trust misplaced, for he lacked 
that firmness which is essential to guide national 
affairs in troublesome times. His kindly disposition, 
affable manners, cosmopolitan breadth, and sympa- 



APPENDIX 



211 



thy made him very popular. The present emperor, 
William II., succeeded to the throne at the death of 
his father in 1888. He was born January 27, 1859. 
He married the Princess Victoria of Schleswig- 
Holstein, an excellent woman and several months his 
senior. Following the old ideal of a German house- 
wife she is devoted to the three K's: "Kirche," 
1 1 Kiiche ' ' and ' ' Kinder. ' ' They have seven children, 
Frederick William (the Crown Prince), William 
Eitel-Frederick, Adalbert, August, Oscar, Joachim, 
and Victoria Louise. The Emperor is an indefati- 
gable worker and prefers the conversation of brilliant 
men to books. In politics he is more like his grand- 
father, an autocrat, who believes in the divine right 
of kings. He knows all that is going on in the world 
and has a high conception of what a ruler should be. 
Being of a nervous temperament, he often acts 
hastily and sometimes unwisely. He seems to think 
it his prerogative and duty not only to shape the for- 
eign policy of Germany, and to influence the army 
and navy, but also to control the press and pulpit, 
and the arts and sciences. He fears and dislikes the 
rising Socialist party, which he considers "a horde of 
men unworthy to bear the name of Germans." He 
is, without doubt, the most misunderstood of all the 
Hohenzollerns, for about none of his predecessors 
has public opinion so wavered. Some of his people 
are extremely optimistic with regard to what may be 
expected of him, while others distrust him on account 



212 GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 



of his warlike proclivities. Be this as it may, the 
Emperor is in a very difficult position and we are 
inclined to believe that he has justified a flattering 
estimate of his character. 

Chancellors of the Empire 

Otto Eduard Leopold Prince von Bismarck, 
the so-called Iron Chancellor, was the first Chancel- 
lor of the German Empire. When William I. suc- 
ceeded Frederick William IV. to the Prussian 
throne, Bismarck was made head of the Prussian 
Cabinet and Minister of Foreign Affairs. He worked 
for the unification of Germany under Prussian leader- 
ship, and strove to place the new Empire in the 
forefront of European nations. After the Franco- 
German war he organized the internal affairs of 
Germany upon a new basis and developed an im- 
perial policy of the first rank. He did much to stimu- 
late industry and thereby to check the continuous 
emigration from Germany. Although a man of 
strong passions, he always sought to maintain peace. 
After the Emperor's death in 1888, Bismarck con- 
tinued in office during the brief reign of Emperor 
Frederick. When William II. succeeded to the 
throne, Bismarck found he had to deal with a young, 
headstrong, and autocratic ruler. After numerous 
quarrels Bismarck resigned on March 20, 1890. He 
was without doubt one of the greatest statesmen of 
all time. He died July 30, 1898. 



APPENDIX 



213 



Georg Leo, Count von Caprivi, distinguished 
himself as a member of the general staff of the First 
Army Corps. Through the influence of Bismarck he 
became the Chief of the Admiralty, and in this ca- 
pacity reorganized the navy upon its present basis. 
In March, 1890, he succeeded Bismarck as Chancel- 
lor, and President of the Prussian Ministry. His 
position was a trying and difficult one, but he showed 
great fortitude and ability in the administration of 
the affairs of the restless William II. He resigned 
in 1894, and died February 6, 1899. His leading 
characteristics were good common sense, obedience 
and loyalty to the Emperor, and simple modes of 
speech and living. He must be credited with the 
commercial prosperity and expansion which Ger- 
many enjoyed for a decade. He was liberal in his 
political and social ideas, and the most accessible 
Chancellor Germany has ever had. 

Friedrich Ludwig, Prince von Hohenlohe, 
a man of rare endowment as a leader and a soldier, 
was the successor of Chancellor Caprivi. He was a 
representative of South Germany, being governor of 
Alsace-Lorraine, when created Imperial Chancellor 
in 1894. His efforts in behalf of a united Germany 
were greatly appreciated. He was highly favored by 
the Emperor, whose colonial policy and ideas for 
a powerful navy he assiduously fostered. In his 
economic convictions he was very much like Caprivi, 
and he favored a close commercial treaty with the 



214 GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 



United States. He was hindered in the full exercise 
of his powers by the infirmities of old age, so that 
during the last year of his service his duties were dis- 
charged by Count von Biilow, who was during the 
next year appointed to succeed him. Von Hohenlohe 
resigned in 1900, and died July 6, 1901. 

Berne ard, Prince von Bulow succeeded Count 
von Hohenlohe in 1900. He is to be classed among 
the ablest men of Germany to-day. After serving with 
considerable distinction in the war of 187 1, he repre- 
sented his country in diplomatic service abroad until he 
became Chancellor of the German Empire and Prime 
Minister of Prussia in 1900. He seemed to be held 
in high esteem by the Emperor and favored imperial 
expansion. Like his predecessor he also favored a 
better political understanding between Germany and 
the United States. Although he may at times have 
appeared unstable and enigmatical, he nevertheless 
was a strong advocate of peace and prosperity. 

He resigned July 14, 1909, and was succeeded by 
Theobald von Bethmann-Hollweg, a man of re- 
served and thoughtful habits, who has been called 
the " Philosopher Statesman." He is fifty-three years 
old, possesses an excellent knowledge of the English 
language, and is well versed in American affairs. 
In politics he is a mild Conservative, but he applies 
to himself the traditional policy that the servants 
of the crown must be non-partisan. 



APPENDIX 



215 



The German Language 
The Germanic languages are descended from the 
Indo-European family, to which the Sanskrit, Per- 
sian, Slavonic, Celtic, Greek, and Latin belong, and 
are divided into three groups. To the first, East 
Germanic, belongs Gothic, which is nearly akin to 
English and German, but which has completely 
died out. Manuscripts which contain fragments of 
the translation of the Bible are the only source of 
our knowledge of the Gothic language. The second 
group, the North Germanic, includes the Scan- 
dinavian languages: Icelandic, Danish-Norwegian, 
and Swedish. The West Germanic forms the third 
group and lives on in the Low German which em- 
braces the English and Dutch, and in the High 
German which is spoken in Germany, Switzerland, 
in certain provinces of Austria-Hungary, and in parts 
of the New World. The history of the development 
of the High German may be conveniently divided 
into the following three periods: 

1. Old High German begins with the sixth cen- 
tury, and continues to the end of the eleventh. It 
was spoken mostly in the south and is characterized 
by full vowels in final syllables. 

2. Middle High German extends from the eleventh 
to the middle of the fourteenth century. In this 
period the language has spread to the middle of 
Germany and become the official language. The 
weakening of the full vowels to e, and the more ex- 



216 GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 



tended use of the umlaut are the principal differences 
of the OHG. and MHG. periods. 

3. New High German continues from the close 
of the MHG. period to the present, and may be di- 
vided into the following divisions : (a) the pre-classical, 
which reaches to the middle of the eighteenth century 
and contains the Saxonic translation of the Bible by 
Luther, who was instrumental in spreading and de- 
veloping the language which became the basis of 
modern German; (b) the classical, represented by the 
great writers, Lessing, Schiller, and Goethe, and (c) 
the post-classical, which may be said to extend from 
Schiller's death to the present. Throughout this en- 
tire period, the language has suffered many changes 
by shortening words, simplifying the grammar, elimi- 
nating foreign words, and adopting a uniform Schrijt- 
sprache as far as possible. 

The German language abounds in dialects, and 
almost every large city and province has its own 
peculiar manner of speech. We may, however, 
divide the dialects into four groups: Low German, 
Upper German, Franconian, and Middle German. 

1. Low German (Plattdeutsch) is a group of dia- 
lects spoken in the northern provinces of Germany. 

2. Upper German is spoken in Switzerland, Al- 
sace, South Baden, Swabia, Bavaria, and certain 
provinces in Austria. 

3. Franconian is divided into Upper Franconian, 
which includes East Franconian and Rhenish Fran- 



APPENDIX 



217 



conian, and Middle Franconian, which embraces the 
territory along the Moselle and along the Rhine from 
Coblenz to Dusseldorf. 

4. East Middle German includes Silesia, Upper 
Saxony, and Thuringia. 

Education 

No people have taken more thought and pains to 
develop a typical educational system than the Ger- 
mans. Although there is no absolute uniformity 
in the school systems of the various German states 
on account of political and religious differences, 
they nevertheless resemble parts of a highly organ- 
ized machine, every part of which is related to the 
other. The Prussian school system is usually taken 
as the standard. In this state the schools are classed 
as follows: Kindergarten, which are privately con- 
ducted; Volksschulen, or elementary schools, which 
provide for the entire period of compulsory attend- 
ance of pupils under fourteen years of age; Burger- 
schulen, or middle schools of a higher grade; and 
Hdhere Burger schulen, which in some parts of Ger- 
many are not included with the secondaiy schools. 
Besides these schools there are the more advanced 
Gymnasien, with nine-year courses, to attend which 
pupils must be nine years of age; Pro gymnasien, 
with six or seven-year courses, usually lacking some 
of the higher classes and located in the smaller 
towns; Real gymnasien, with nine-year courses, includ- 



218 GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 



ing Latin; Real pro gymnasien, with six-year courses, 
including Latin; Oberrealschulen, with nine-year 
courses, without Latin; Realschulen, with six-year 
courses, without Latin. The aim of the Gymnasium 
is, "to prepare its students through a broad hu- 
manistic training for the independent study of the 
arts and sciences." It is the classical preparatory 
school for the university and requires of the pupil for 
entrance a three-years' preparatory course in read- 
ing, writing, arithmetic, and religion. This prepara- 
tion may be had in the elementary schools, private 
and public, and in the Vorschulen connected with 
the Gymnasien. The Progymnasien are merely Gym- 
nasien having, as a rule, only the lower and mid- 
dle classes. The aim of the Realgymnasium "is to 
give the youth a liberal education, founded, how- 
ever, especially on instruction in the modern lan- 
guages, mathematics, and the natural sciences." The 
curriculum corresponds to the course of study of the 
American High School, and graduates are admitted 
to university courses in mathematics, the natural 
sciences, and modern languages, and to all tech- 
nological schools, but are denied admission to the 
professions of law, medicine, and theology, and to 
certain positions in the state. There are about 56,560 
schools in all, maintained at a cost of sixty millions 
annually, and the number of illiterates is very small, 
since ninety-nine per cent, of all adults in Germany 
can read and write. 



APPENDIX 



2IQ 



Included in the above number of schools are 
128 Realgymnasien and 93 Realprogymnasien. The 
former "aim to fit their students for more effectual 
and intelligent participation in the actual business 
affairs of life, and therefore place particular emphasis 
on the modern languages and the natural sciences." 
The Oberrealschulen have nine-year courses, while 
the Realschulen have six. Graduates of the latter 
are well prepared to take up the duties of practical 
life and are on a par with the graduates of the former. 
Coeducation is restricted to the Volksschulen, where 
the boys occupy one end of the building and the girls 
the other. There are, however, Hdhere Madchen- 
schulen, which have a nine years' course and are of 
the same grade as the Gymnasien. The higher edu- 
cation of girls is left to private institutions. Some 
universities allow women to continue their studies, 
and grant them the degree of Ph.D., while others do 
not admit them at all, or only as "auditors." The 
German universities have, without doubt, reached 
a high state of perfection and serve as models for 
other countries. They are the recognized medium 
of admission to all the learned professions and all 
important positions in the civil service. The watch- 
words of the German university system are, "Lehr- 
freiheit " and " Lernfreiheit." Without any definitely 
arranged curriculum a student may pass at will from 
one university to another. Native students are ma- 
triculated on presentation of a certificate of gradu- 



220 GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 



ation from a Gymnasium; foreigners are required 
to present a university diploma and a passport. The 
first semester begins about the middle of October 
and closes in the latter part of March; the second 
semester opens early in April and ends about the 
middle of August. A few universities like Jena and 
Marburg have summer school courses. 

There are also good professional and techno- 
logical schools in Berlin, Hanover, Aix-la-Chapelle, 
Munich, Dresden, Stuttgart, Darmstadt, Karlsruhe, 
and Brunswick. Military academies are established 
in Berlin and Munich; military engineering schools 
in Berlin, Munich, Potsdam, Erfurt, Cassel, Metz, 
and elsewhere. The principal naval academy is 
located at Kiel. There are twenty-one German uni- 
versities, the oldest of which is Heidelberg, founded 
in 1386. Each university is made up of four facul- 
ties — law, medicine, philosophy, and theology. Pro- 
fessors rank as Ordinary, Extra-Ordinary, Privat- 
Docenten or authorized lecturers. The matriculation 
fee is about 20 M., and if a student comes from 
another university it is 10 M. 

Attendance at the German Universities 
Summer Semester 1909 

Berlin . . . .7194 Freiburg .... 2760 

Bonn .... 3801 Giessen . . . . 1271 

Breslau .... 2347 Gottingen . . . 2239 

Erlangen . . . 1158 Greifswald . . . 967 



APPENDIX 



221 



Halle 


. . . 2310 


Marburg . . 


. . 2134 


Heidelberg . 


. . 2171 


Munich . . 


• 6547 


Jena . . 




Minister . . 


. . 1760 


Kiel . . . 


• • !593 


Rostock . . 


• 743 


Konigsberg 


• • • 1293 


Strassburg . 


• • 1935 


Leipzig . . 


. . 4581 


Tubingen . . 


. 1921 




Wiirzburg 


. . . 1369 





222 GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 



IDIOMATIC EXPRESSIONS 

1. Gefalligst. Bitte. Please. Erlauben Sie. Wenn 
es Ihnen gefallig ist. // you please. 

2. Ich bitte urn Verzeihung. Entschuldigen Sie. 
/ beg your pardon. 

3. Ich danke. Thanks. Danke sehr. Danke 
bestens. Thanks very much. Vielen Dank. 
Besten Dank. Many thanks. 

4. Bitte, bitte sehr. Don't mention it. 

5. Kennen Sie Herrn N. ? Do you know Mr. N.? 
Ja, er ist mir bekannt. Yes, I do. Leider 
nicht. No, I am sorry to say. Er ist mir ganz 
unbekannt. / do not know him at all. Er 
kommt mir bekannt vor. / think I know him. 

6. Sind Sie Ihm vorgestellt? Have you been in- 
troduced to him? Es freut mich sehr, Ihre Be- 
kanntschaf t zu machen. Es freut mich sehr, Sie 
kennen zu lernen. I am pleased to make your 
acquaintance. 

7. Auf Wiedersehen! Leben Sie wohl! Adieu. 
Good-by, Farewell. 

8. Schone, angenehme, gluckliche Reise! A 
pleasant journey. 

9. Vergessen Sie uns nicht! DonH jorget us. 
Griissen Sie mir Herrn N. Remember me to 
Mr. N. Schone Griisse an Herrn N. Give my 
kind regards to Mr. N. 



APPENDIX 



223 



10. Prosit! Zur Gesundheit ! Zu Ihrem Wohlsein ! 
Your good health. 

11. Mahlzeit! Gesegnete Mahlzeit! / hope you 
will enjoy, or have enjoyed your meal! 

12. Es tut mir leid. / am sorry. Es ist schade. 
// is too bad. 

13. Er hat einen Bock geschossen. He has made 
a blunder. 

14. Er lebt in den Tag hinein. He lives carelessly. 

15. Er konnte nicht umhin. He could not help. 

16. Zu Pferde. On horseback. Zu Fuss. On foot. 

17. Er lasst es sich sehr sauer werden. He works 
very hard. 

18. Er hat mir etwas weiss gemacht. He has fooled 
me, pulled the wool over my eyes. 

19. Es geht mich nichts an. It does not concern 
me. 

20. Er hat mich im Stich gelassen. He has left me 
in the lurch, deserted me. 

21. Lassen Sie sich's schmecken! i" hope you will 
enjoy your dinner. 

22. Was den Inhalt des Brief es betrifft. As to the 
contents of the letter. 

23. Es geht mir jetzt besser. / am better now. 

24. Mit Sack und Pack. With bag and baggage. 

25. Es lasst sich nicht andern. It cannot be helped. 

26. Sie konnen sich darauf verlassen. You may de- 
pend upon it. 

27. Sie haben gut reden. It is all very well for you. 



224 



GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 



28. Er lasst sich nichts sagen. He will not take any 
advice. 

29. Sie kann nicht abkommen. She can not get 
away. 

30. Nichts fur ungut. No offense is intended. 

31. Mach' dass du weg kommst! Hurry along! 

32. Es steckt etwas dahinter. Es geht nicht mit 
rechten Dingen zu. There is something wrong 
about it. 

33. Die Haare stehen ihm zu Berge. His hair 
stands on end. 

34. Das hat nichts zu sagen. That does not matter. 

35. Ich nehme es nicht so genau mit ihm. I am 
not so strict with him. 

36. Das kann Ihnen niemand verdenken. No one 
can blame you for that. 

37. Das ist mir ganz egal, einerlei. It is all the same 
to me. 

38. Das geschieht ihr recht. It serves her right. 

39. Das will viel heissen. That is saying a great 
deal. 

40. Ich kann nichts dafiir. / can not help it. 

41. Er hat unrecht. He is wrong. 

42. Billets, gefalligst, meine Herrschaf ten ! Tickets, 
please, ladies and gentlemen! 

43. Sitzen bleiben ! Keep your seats. 

44. Nach Leipzig umsteigen! Change jor Leipzig. 

45. Alles umsteigen ! Everybody change cars. 

46. Einsteigen! All aboard! 



APPENDIX 



225 



47. Ich mochte gem ein Glas Wasser. I should 
like a glass of water. 

48. Was unterstehen Sie sich! How dare you! 

49. Wollen Sie bei mir zu Mittag essen ? Will you 
have luncheon with me? 

50. Er hat sich zu Grunde gerichtet. He has 
ruined himself. 

51. Unter die Haube kommen. To be married. 

52. Ich habe ihn ins Auge gefasst. I have measured 
him with my eye. 

53. Es bleibt mir nichts iibrig. Nothing is left for 
me. 

54. Er machte sich auf den Weg. He started, or 
went on his way. 

55. Es will mir nicht einf alien. It does not occur to 
me. 

56. Sie ging die Treppe hinan, hinunter. She went 
upstairs, downstairs. 

57. Er liegt in den letzten Ziigen. He is breathing 
his last. 

58. Wir haben den Kurzeren gezogen. We have 
been defeated. 

59. Was fallt Ihnen ein ? What do you mean? 

60. Das passt nicht. That is not at all proper. 

61. Betrachten Sie sich als geohrfeigt. Consider 
your ears boxed. 

62. Er fallt mit der Tiir ins Haus. He blunders out. 

63. Das sollte mir einfallen. You don't catch me. 

64. Keine Widerrede! Not another word! 

Ger. Stu. Man. — 15 



226 GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 



65. Ich bekleide eine Stelle. / hold a position. 

66. Es kommt auf einen Tag nicht an. A day more 
or less does not matter. 

67. Er hat sich aus dem Staub gemacht. He has 
run away. 

68. Ich lasse mir das nicht gefallen. / will not put 
up with it. 

69. Es ist urn ihn geschehen. He is done for. 

70. Sie hat es aus der Luft gegriffen. She has 
coined it. 

71. Sie konnen ihre Waare nicht an den Mann 
bringen. They can not dispose of their goods. 

72. Sie zieht mich gern auf. She likes to quiz me. 

73. Mir ist dabei iibel zu Mute. / feel very uneasy 
about it. 

74. An wem ist die Reihe ? Whose turn is it? 

75. Er ist sehr kurz angebunden. He is very 
hasty. 

76. Heute iiber acht Tagen. A week hence. 

77. Sie muss sich umziehen. She must change her 
dress. 

78. Wir wollen es fur diesmal gut sein lassen. For 
this time we will let it pass. 

79. Wir miissen die Zeche bezahlen. We must pay 
the reckoning. 

80. Sollen wir spazieren fahren, gehen? Shall we 
take a drive, walk ? 

81. Englisch ist mir gelaufig. / am familiar with 
English. 



APPENDIX 



227 



82. Er hat mich zum besten gehabt. He has made 
fun of me. 

83. Die Hoffnung ist in die B ruche gegangen. 
Hope has been shattered. 

84. Wie viel bin ich Ihnen schuldig ? How much 
do I owe you? 

85. Was darf ich Ihnen anbieten? What may I 
offer you ? 

86. Bringen Sie noch eine Tasse Kaffee, bitte. 
Another cup of coffee, please. 

87. Ich will ihm auf den Zahn fiihlen. / am going 
to draw him out, get his opinion. 

88. Das lasst sich horen. That is worth hearing. 

89. Er liess sich das nicht zweimal sagen. He did 
not need to be told twice. 

90. Wir wollen es darauf ankommen lassen. Let 
us take our chance. 

91. Der Lehrer ist schuld daran. The teacher is io 
blame. 

92. Lassen Sie ihm gewahren. Let him alone. 

93. Es sei dem, wie ihm wolle. Be it as it may. 

94. Lassen Sie es gut sein. Never mind. 

95. Versteht sich! Of course! 

96. Sie sind wieder vernunftig geworden. You 
have come to your senses. 

97. Wir sind im Begriff etwas zu tun. We are about 
to do something. 

98. Was Sie nicht sagen ! You don't say so ! 

99. Nimm dich in acht ! Take care ! 



228 



GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 



100. Ich bin im stande das zu tun. I am capable 
of doing that. 

1 01. Sie war es wie sie leibte und lebte. It was she 
herself. 

102. Aus dem Stegreife reden. To speak impromptu. 

103. Um wie viel Uhr fruhstiicken Sie? At what 
time do you breakfast? 

104. Wir haben dem Unterricht nicht beiwohnen 
konnen. We have not been able to attend our 
classes. 

105. Ich bewerbe mich um die Stelle. I apply for 

the place. 

106. Wir machen Sie darauf aufmerksam. We call 
your attention to it. 

107. Ich weiss weder aus noch ein. / am in trouble. 

108. Er ist oben, unten. He is upstairs, downstairs. 

109. Wir haben nichts daran auszusetzen. We have 
no fault to find with it. 

no. Er blieb mir damit vom Halse. He did not 

trouble me with that. 
nr. Er hat sich dariiber den Kopf nicht zerbrochen. 

Tie has not troubled his head about it. 

112. Das halt nicht Stich. That will not hold good. 

113. Sie kommen mir immer in die Queere. You 
always cross my plans. 

114. Er tat es aus freien Stucken. He did it of his 
own accord. 

115. Erhat einen Korb bekommen. He has got the 
mitten. His offer of marriage has been refused. 



APPENDIX 



229 



116. Man muss ihm auf die Finger sehen. He must 
be closely watched. 

117. Was fur dummes Zeug faseln Sie! What non- 
sense you talk! 

118. Einen iiber die Achsel ansehen. To look with 
disrespect upon a person. 

119. Jemand etwas anheim stellen. To refer a 
matter to some one. 

120. Einen anschwarzen; ihn schwarz machen. To 
slander a person. 

121. Einem unter die Arme greifen. To help one 
out of trouble. 

122. Ein Auge zudrucken. To pass a mild judgment. 

123. Unter vier Augen. Between two persons. 

124. Es hat den Ausschlag gegeben. It has cast the 
decision. 

125. Einem eins auswischen. To injure, or give one 
a black eye. 

126. Auf der Barenhaut liegen. To be idle or lazy. 

127. Sich die Beine nach etwas ablaufen. To make 
a great effort for something. 

128. Sie stecken unter einer Decke. They are in the 
same boat. 

129. Guter Dinge sein. To be of good cheer. 

130. Dem will ich es eintranken. I will get even with 
him. 

131. Auf eigene Faust. At one's own risk. 

132. Er hat sich in die Faust gelacht. He laughed 
in his sleeve, behind their back. 



230 GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 

133. Etwas aus dem ff ( = fein, fein) verstehen. To 
understand thoroughly. 

134. Es passt wie die Faust aufs Auge. It fits very 
poorly. 

135. Nicht viel Federlesens machen. To make short 
work of anything. 

136. Feierabend machen. To cease work in the 
evening. 

137. Sie leben auf grossem Fusse. They make a 
great display. 

138. Einem den Garaus machen. To kill a person. 

139. Das ist gehiipft wie gesprungen. There is .,0 
difference. 

140. Etwas an die grosse Glocke hangen. To make 
a thing publicly known. 

141. Leben wie der liebe Gott in Frankreich. To 
take life easy. 

142. Er kommt auf keinen griinen Zweig. He does 
not prosper. 

143. Da liegt der Hase im PfefTer. Here is the point. 
Here's the rub. 

144. Ganz aus dem Hauschen sein. To act very 
foolishly. 

145. Ich werde es ihm heimzahlen. / will get even 
with him. 

146. Etwas in Hiille und Flille haben. To have a 
superabundance. 

147. Er hat Vogel unter dem Hut. He is too lazy 
to take off his hat. 



APPENDIX 



231 



148. Er macht Kalender. He troubles himself un- 
necessarily. 

149. Etwas auf die hohe Kant legen. To be saving. 

150. Erist kaput. He is played out. 

151. Bei jemand auf dem Kerbholz stehen. To be 
indebted to somebody. 

152. Das Kind beim rechten Namen nennen. To 
talk plainly. To call a spade a spade. 

153. Etwas aufs Korn nehmen. To call attention 
to something, or to have one's eye on something. 

154. Frisch von der Leber sprechen. To speak 
jrankly. 

155. Lehrgeld geben. To pay dearly for experience. 

156. Uber einen Leisten schlagen. To do every- 
thing in the same manner. 

157. Schuster bleib' bei deinem Leisten! Cobbler 
stick to your last. Stick to your trade. 

158. Zu guter letzt. Finally. 

159. Auf dem letzten Loche pfeifen. To be breath- 
ing one's last. 

160. Einen Narren an jemand gefressen haben. To 
be foolishly captivated by a person. 

161. Die Nase riimpfen. To stick up one's nose. 

162. Er is naseweis. He is inquisitive. 

163. Es hinter den Ohren haben. To be shrewd, 
cunning. 

164. Aus dem Regen in die Traufe. From the frying 
pan into the fire. 

165. In Saus und Braus leben. To live high. 



232 GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 

1 66. Etwas im Schilde fiihren. To plan something 

secretly. 

167. Er schlagt seiner Mutter nach. He resembles 
his mother. 

168. Reden, wie einem der Schnabel gewachsen ist. 
To speak one's mind freely. 

169. Zeter und Mord schreien. To raise an outcry. 

170. Er hat sein Schafchen ins Trockene gebracht. 
He has had good luck. 

171. Er weiss wo Barthold den Most holt. He 
knows the ropes. 

172. Gegen jemand in die Schranken treten. To 
take a stand openly against a person. 

173. Eine Scharte auswetzen. To wipe out an old 
score. 

174. In Bausch und Bogen. In a lump. 

175. Jemandem etwas einbrocken. To serve a per- 
son an ill turn. 

176. Bei dem ist eine Schraube los. He is beside 
himself. There is a screw loose. 

177. Gesichter schneiden. To make faces. 

178. Er ist von altera Schrot und Korn. He is of 
genuine German stock. 

179. Einem ins Gehege kommen. To put a spoke in 
one's wheel. 

180. Die Schule schwanzen. To run away from 
school. To cut classes. 

181. Das andert an der Sache gar nichts. That 
makes no difference. 



APPEXDIX 



2 33 



182. Auf Schusters Rappen gehen. To go on foot. 

183. Seine sieben Sachen packen. To pack up and 
leave with a few belongings. 

184. Er hat einen Sparren zu vieL He is not men- 
tally well balanced. 

185. Er ist in voller Wichse. He is all togged out. 

186. tlber jemand den Stab brechen. To condemn 
a person. 

187. Einem den Stuhl vor die Tiir setzen. To throw 
a person out of the house. 

188. Er giebt sich damit zufrieden. He is satisfied. 

189. Warten, dass einem die gebratenen Tauben in 
den Mund fliegen. Waiting to take life easy, 
to obtain something without effort. 

190. Die Grillen vertreiben. To drive away the 
blues. 

191. Sich mit Grillen plagen. To brood over one J s 
troubles. 

192. Er hat den Ton angegeben. He sets the pace. 

193. Makele nicht zu viel. Do not find too much 
fault. 

194. Umstande machen. To make much ado about 
nothing. 

195. Den Wald vor lauter Baume nicht sehen. Not 
to see the woods for the trees. 

196. Jemand beim Fittich erwischen. To collar or 
buttonhole a person. 

197. Jemandem standhalten. To hold out against 
a person. 



GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 



198. Einem nicht das Wasser reichen. He can not 
hold a candle to him. 

199. Die Gelegenheit beim Schopfe fassen. To im- 
prove the opportunity. 

200. Er stellte sie zur Rede. He called them to ac- 
count. 

201. Sich ein X fur ein U machen lassen. To be 
bamboozled. 

202. Er machte einen Fleischergang. He went on a 
fool 's errand. 

203. Er wittert Unrat. He smells a rat. 

204. Etwas in Abrede stellen, ziehen. To deny. 

205. In die Richte gehen. To take the shortest cut. 

206. Der fahrt hoch her. He comes in great style. 

207. Eine Bewegung fasst Fuss. A movement is on 
foot. 

208. Er kennt die Schliche. He knows the tricks of 
the trade. 

209. Da sitzt der Knoten. Here lies the trouble. 

210. Die Kosten uberschlagen. To count the cost. 

211. Das Hasenpanier ergreifen. To take to one's 
heels. 

212. Viel auf Anstand halten. To have a great re- 
gard for propriety. 

213. Es beliebt mir. / choose, it pleases me. 

214. Im Rufe stehn. To have the reputation. 

215. Jemandem das Gleichgewicht halten. To hold 
one's own with some one. 

216. XJm so besser. So much the better. 



APPENDIX 



235 



217. Ich bin Ihnen sehr verbunden. I am very much 
obliged to you. 

218. Ein Backfisch. A girl in her teens. 

219. Einer (eine) aus der siebenten Bitte. An ob- 
noxious person. 

220. Einen blauen Dunst vor die Augen machen. 
To pull the wool over one's eyes. 

221. Sich nach der Decke strecken. To cut one's 
coat according to one's cloth. 

222. Die Flinte ins Korn werfen. To lose courage. 

223. Fiinf gerade sein lassen. Not too particular. 

224. Einem den roten Hahn aufs Dach setzen. To 
set one's house on fire. 

225. An dem ist Hopfen und Malz verloren. He is a 
hopeless case. 



236 GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 



ABBREVIATIONS 

a. a. O. — am angefuhrten Orte. 

A. G .— Aktien Gesellschaft. 

ahd . — althochdeutsch . 

allg. — allgemein. 

A. T. — Altes Testament. 

betr . — betreff end . 

bspw. — beispielsweise. 

bzw. — beziehungsweise. 

dergl. (dgl.) — dergleichen. 

d. h. — das heisst. 

d. i. — das ist. 

d. J. — dieses Jahres. 

e. g. — zum Beispiel. 
eig. — eigentlich. 
etw. — etwas. 

Ew. — Euer or Eure. 

f. (ff.)— folgende. 
fg. — folgendes. 
geb. — geboren. 
gest. — gestorben. 
ge w . — ge w ohnlich . 
hd. — hochdeutsch. 
Hoh.— Hoheit 
Hr.— Herr. 

i. allg. — im allgemeinen. 
i. J. — im Jahr. 



APPENDIX 



Jh. — Jahrhundert. 
M— Mark. 

mhd. — mittelhochdeutsch. 

n. Chr. — nach Christo. 

nhd. — neuhochdeutsch. 

N. N.— (Mr.) So and So. 

N. T. — Neues Testament. 

O.— Ort. 

o. (od.) — oder. 

Pf. — Pfennige. 

S. — Seite. 

s. — siehe. 

S. M.— Seine Majestat. 
sog. — sogenannt. 
Thlr. — Thaler, 
u. — und. 

u. a. — unter anderem. 

u. a. m. — und andere mehr. 

U. A. w. g. — Um Antwort wird gebeten. 

u. dergl. — und dergleichen. 

u. s. f. — und so fort. 

u. s. w. — und so weiter. 

v. — von. 

v. Chr. — vor Christo. 
vergl. (vgl.) — vergleiche. 
v. J. — vorigen Jahres. 
z. B. — zum Beispiel. 



238 GERMAN STUDENTS' MANUAL 

Money, Weights, and Measures 

A comparison of money in Germany, France, Eng- 
land, and the United States. 

One Dollar= 4.1979 Marks = 5.i826 Francs = .20 Pound. 
One Mark= 100 Pfennigs 1.24 Francs = 1 if Pence = $0.24. 
Krone =10 Marks (gold coin). Thaler = 3 Marks. 

Approximate Metric Equivalents. 

1 decimeter . 4 inches 1 liter (liquid) .... 1.06 qt. 

1 meter . . 1.1 yard " (dry) ..... .9 qt. 

1 kilometer , § mile 1 kilogram .... 2 1-5 lbs. 

The Metric System is used all over Germany. 
Other useful weights and measures. 

Morgen . . . 180 sq. rods Schock .... 60 pieces 
Mandel ... 15 pieces Stiege .... 20 pieces 
Pfund (no longer official) 500 Grams. 



INDEX 



Abraham a Santa-Clara, 75. 
Alberti, K., 200. 
Alexander lied, The, 42. 
Alexis, W. (Haring W.), 170. 
Allemanni, The, 25. 
Anacreontic School, The, 79. 
Anzengruber, Ludwig, 187. 
Arminius (Hermann), 22. 
Army, The German, 206. 
Arndt, Ernst M., 172, 173. 
Arnim, Ludwig Achim von, 

166. 
Aryans, The, 7. 
Attila, 27. 

Aue, Hartmann von, 50. 
Auerbach, Berthold, 186. 
August, Duke Karl, 105, 138, 
154- 

Austrian Writers, 174, 200. 
Bahr, H., 200. 
Baumbach, Rudolf, 191. 
Beast Epic, The, 38. 
Bible, The Gothic, 29. 
Bismarck, Otto E. Prince von, 
212. 

Bleibtreu, Karl, 200. 
Bodmer, J. J., 77. 
Bohlau, Helene, 193. 
Boie, Heinrich C, 98. 
Boniface, St., 30. 
Borne, Ludwig, 180. 
Brant, Sebastian, 64. 
Braut von Messina, Die, 126. 
Breitinger, J. J., 78. 
Bremer Beitrdge, 79. 
Brentano, Bettina, 154, 166. 
Brentano, Clemens, 166. 
Brockes, Heinrich, 74. 



Biilow, Bernhard, Count von, 
214. 

Bundesrat, The, 205. 
Burger, Gottfried A., 98. 
Burgundians, The, 26. 
Busch, Wilhelm, 193. 
Caprivi, Georg Leo, Count 

von, 213. 
Chamisso, Adelbert von, 168. 
Charles the Great, 32. 
Cherusci, The, 22. 
Chivalry, 41. 
Cimbri, The, n, 21. 
Claudius, Matthias, 98. 
Codex Argentens, 29. 
Columbanus, 30. 
Crusades, The, 41. 
Dach, Simon, 73. 
Dahn, Felix, 188. 
Defoe, D. (Robinson Crusoe), 

75- 

Dialects, 216. 

Dichtung und Wahrheit, 131, 
153- 

Didactic Poetry, 59. 
Don Carlos, no. 
Drama, The, 64. 
Droste-Hulshoff, Annette von, 
192. 

Ebers, Georg, 188. 
Ebner-Eschenbach, Marie von, 
I 93- 

Edda, 16, 20, 42. 
Egmont, 143. 

Eichendorff, Joseph Freiherr 

von, 169, 172. 
Emilia Galotti, 89. 
Epics of Chivalry, The, 50. 



239 



240 



INDEX 



Epics, The Popular, 42. 

Erec, 50. 

Ernst, Herzog, 39. 
Eschenbach, Wolfram von, 53. 
Eulenspiegel, Till, 63. 
Evangelienbuch, The, 34. 
Fallersleben, Hoffmann von, 
181. 

Fastnachts spiel, The, 64. 
Faust, First Part, 156. 
Faust, Second Part, 159. 
Fichte, Johann G., 97. 
Fiesco, 105. 

Fischart, Johann, 66, 69. 
Fleming, Paul, 73. 
Fontane, Theodor, 195. 
Fouque, Friedrich Baron de la 

Motte von, 166, 172. 
Franks, The, 25. 
Frauenlob (Meissen), 61. 
Frederick the Great, 77. 
Freidank, 60. 

Freiligrath, Hermann Ferdi- 
nand, 181. 

Frisians, The, 26. 

Fruchtbringende Gesellschaft, 
72. 

Freytag, Gustav, 185. 
Fulda, Ludwig, 199. 
Gallus, St., 30. 

Gandersheim, Roswitha von, 
36. 

Geibel, Emanuel, 182. 

Gellert, Christian, 79, 132. 

Gerhardt, Paul, 76. 

German (Old High), 31. 

German (Old and Middle 
High), 41. 

German Empire, The, 201. 

Germani, The, 8. 

Gerst'acker, Friedrich, 188. 

Gleemen (Spielleute), 35. 

Gleim, J. W., 79. 

Glichesare, Heinrich der, 39. 

Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von, 
130, 96, 162; Dichtung und 
Wahrheit, 131; Gotz von Ber- 



lichingen, 135; Werther, 137; 
Iphigenie, 140; Egmont, 143; 
Tasso, 146; Xenien (with 
Schiller), 149; Hermann und 
Dorothea, 149; Die Wahlver- 
ivandtschaften, 152; Faust, 
156, 159. 

Gotz, J. N., 79. 

Goths, The, 24, 27. 

Gotter, Friedrich W., 98. 

Gottinger Hain (Hainbund), 
97- 

Gottsched, J. C, 77, 132. 
Gotz von Berlichingen, 135. 
Government, German, 204. 
Grabbe, Christian D., 179. 
Gregorius, 50, 51. 
Grillparzer, Franz, 177. 
Grimm, Jacob and Wilhelm, 
163. 

Grimmelshausen, C. von, 75. 
Griin. Anastasius, 176. 
Gryphius, Andreas, 73. 
Giinther, Christian, 74. 
Gudrun, 47. 
Gutzkow, Karl F., 180. 
Hagedorn, Friedrich von, 78. 
Hahn-Hahn, Grafin Ida, 193. 
Hainbund, The, 98. 
Halbe, Max, 199. 
Haller, Albrecht von, 78. 
Hamann, Johann G., 96. 
Hardenberg, Friedrich von, 165. 
Haring, Wilhelm, 170. 
Hartleben, O. E., 200. 
Hauff, Wilhelm, 176. 
Hauptmann, Gerhart, 196, 197. 
Hebbel, Christian F., 179. 
Hebel, Johann P., 186. 
Hegel, Georg W., 97. 
Heine, Heinrich, 182. 
Heinrich, Der arme, 51. 
Heliand, The, 33. 
Herder, Johann Gottfried von, 

96, 98, 133. 
Hermann (Arminius), 22. 
Hermann und Dorothea, 149. 



INDEX 



241 



Herwegh, Georg, 181. 
Heyse, Paul, 191. 
Hildebrandslied, The, 33. 
Hillern, Wilhelmine von, 193. 
Hoffmann, E. T. A., 166. 
Hoffmanswaldau, Hofmann 

von, 74. 
Hofmannsthal, H. von, 200. 
Hohenlohe, Friedrich L. 

Prince von, 213. 
Hohenstaufen, The, 41. 
Holderlin, Friedrich, 170, 171. 
Hollweg, T. von Bethmann — , 

214. 

Holtei, Karl von 187. 
Holty, Ludwig H., 98. 
Huch, Ricarda, 193. 
Humanism, 65. 
Huns, The, 26, 27. 
Hutten, Ulrich von, 66. 
Ibsen, Henrik, 185, 195. 
Iffland, 108, 162. 
Immermann, Karl L., 181. 
Imperial Family, The Ger- 
man, 209. 
Iphigenie auf Tauris, 140. 
Iwein, 51. 

Jacobi, Friedrich H, 97, 138. 
Jensen, Wilhelm, 192. 
Jung fr an von Orleans, Die, 1 23 . 
Jung-Stilling, 97, 133. 
Kabale und Liebe, 108. 
Kant, Immanuel, 97. 
Keller, Gottfried, 188. 
Kerner, Justinus A. C, 176. 
Kleist, Ewald C von, 80. 
Kleist, Heinrich von, 167. 
Klinger, Maximilian von, 97. 
Klopstock, Friedrich G., 80, 96. 
Korner, Christian G., 105, 173. 
Korner, Karl Theodor, 172, 173. 
Kotzebue, August von, 162. 
Kretzer, Max., 200. 
Krist (Evangelienbuch), 34. 
Laube, Heinrich, 180. 
Lavater, Johann, 97, 137. 
Leisewitz, Anton, 98. 



Lenau, Nikolaus, 177. 

Lenz, Reinhold, 97. 

Lessing, Gotthold E., 84, 96; 
Miss Sara Sampson, 85; 
Hamburgische Dramaturgie, 
87; Laokoon, 87; Minna von 
Barnhelm, 88; Emilia Ga- 
lotti, 89; Nathan der Weise, 
92. 

Lewald, Fanny, 193. 
Liliencron, Detlev von, 195. 
Logau, Friedrich, 73. 
Lohenstein, D. C. von, 74. 
Ludwig, Otto, 179. 
Ludwigslied, The, 34. 
Luther, Martin, 66. 
Lyric Poetry of the Courts, 

The, 57. 
Maria Stuart, 121. 
Marlitt, E., 193. 
Meissen, Heinrich von, 61. 
Meistersingers, The, 61. 
Mendelssohn, Moses, 85. 
Merck, J. H, 134. 
Meyer, Conrad F., 189. 
Middle Ages, The Close of the, 

61. 

Miller, J. Martin, 98. 
Minna von Barnhelm, 88. 
Minnesingers, The, 57. 
Miss Sara Sampson, 85. 
Monasteries, The, 36. 
Montfort, Graf von, 61. 
Morike, Eduard, 176. 
Moscherosch, Hans, 75. 
Miihlbach, Luise, 193. 
Muller, Friedrich, 97. 
Miiller, Wilhelm, 169, 172. 
Murner, Thomas, 66. 
M us pilli, 32. 
Nathan der Weise, 92. 
Navy, The German, 206. 
Neander, Joachim, 76. 
Nibelungenlied, The, 42. 
Nicolai, C. F., 85. 
Nietzsche, Friedrich W., 195. 
Novalis (Hardenberg), 165. 



Ger. Stu. Man. — 16 



242 



INDEX 



Opitz, Martin, 72. 

Ostrogoths, The, 28. 

Otfried, 34. 

Paoli, Betty, 193. 

Parzival, 54, 75. 

Patrick, St., 30. 

Pestalozzi, 170. 

Platen, August von, 170, 171. 

Postl (C. Sealsfield), 188. 

Raabe, Wilhelm, 193. 

Rabener, Gottlieb W., 79. 

Ramler, Karl W. , 80. 

Rauber, Die, 101. 

Reichstag, The, 205. 

Reimarus, H. S., 92. 

Reineke Fuchs, 63. 

Reinhart, 38. 

Reuter, Fritz, 187. 

Reuter, Gabriele, 193. 

Richter, Jean Paul, 162, 194. 

Riehl, Wilhelm H., 192. 

Robinsonaden, 75. 

Rolandslied, The, 42. 

Romanticism, 163. 

Rosegger, Peter, 188. 

Rother, Konig 39. 

Riickert, Friedrich, 170, 171, 

Ruodlieb, 38. 

Sachs, Hans, 64, 68. 

Saga-cycles, 28. 

Salians, The, 38. 

Saxons, The, 25. 

Scheffel, Joseph V. von, 190. 

Schemer, Johann, 76. 

Schelling, Friedrich W., 97. 

Schenkendorf, Max. von, 174. 

Schiller Johann C. Friedrich 
von, 100, 148, 149, 162; Die 
Rauber, 10 1; Fiesco, 105; Ka- 
bale und Liebe, 108; Don 
Carlos, 110; Historical Writ- 
ings, 113; Ballads, 114; Ly- 
ric Poetry, 115, 116; Wallen- 
stein, 117; Maria Stuart, 121; 
Die Jungfrau von Orleans, 
123; Die Braut von Messina, 
126; Wilhelm Tell, 128. 



Schlegel, August W., 164, 166. 
Schlegel, Johann Elias, 79. 
Schlegel, Friedrich, 164, 166. 
Schleiermacher, F. E., 163. 
Schnabel, J. G., 75. 
Schnitzler, A., 200. 
Schubart, Christian F., 97, 101. 
Schulze, Ernst K., 172. 
Schwab, Gustav, 176. 
Sealsfield, Charles (Postl), 188. 
Seidel, Heinrich, 193. 
Shrovetide Plays, 69. 
Silesian Schools, 73, 74. 
Spee, Friedrich von, 76. 
Spielhagen, Friedrich, 186. 
Spielleute (Gleemen), 35. 
Spener, Philipp Jakob, 71. 
Stolberg, The Brothers, 98, 138. 
Storm, Theodor, 189. 
Strassburg, Gottfried von, 52. 
Strieker, 60. 

Sturm und Drang, 96, 134, 163. 

Sudermann, Hermann, 196. 

Suevi, The, 25. 

Swabian School, The, 174. 

Sylva, Carmen, 193. 

Tasso, 146. 

Theodoric, 28. 

Thirty Years' War, The, 71, 75, 
77- 

Thuringii, The, 25. 
Tieck, Ludwig, 164, 166. 
Tolstoy, Leo, Count von, 185, 
195- 

Trimberg, Hugo von, 60. 
Tristan und Isolde, 52. 
Uhland, Ludwig, 175. 
Ulfilas, 29. 
Uz, J. P., 79. 
Varus, Quintilius, 21. 
Veldeke, Heinrich von, 50. 
Viebig, Clara, 193. 
Vogelweide, Walther von der, 
58- 

Volksbucher, The, 66. 
Volkslied, The, 62, 66. 
Voss, Johann H., 98. 



INDEX 



243 



Wackenroder, W. H., 165. 
Wagner, Heinrich, 97. 
Wagner, Richard, 184. 
Wahlverwandlschqften, Die, 
152. 

Wallenstein, 117. 
Waltharilied, The (Waltharius), 
36. 

War of Liberation, The, 172. 
Weisse, Christian, 74. 
Werner, F. L. Zacharias, 167. 
Werther, 135, 137. 
Wessobrunner Gebet, 32. 
Wieland, Christoph M., 82. 
Wilbrandt, Adolf, 192. 
Wildenbruch, Ernst von, 194. 



Wlldermuth, Ottilie, 193. 
Wilhelm Meisters Wander jahre, 
153- 

Wilhelm Tell, 128. 
William II., 204, 211. 
Winckelmann, Johann, 79. 
Winsbach, Herr von, 60. 
Wolkenstein, Oswald von, 61. 
Wolff, Julius, 191. 
Young Germany, 179. 
Zacharia, J. F., 79. 
Zedlitz, Joseph C. Freiherr von, 
177. 

Zinzendorf, Graf von, 76. 
Zola, E., 195. 
Zschokke, Heinrich, 170. 



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